{"id":99,"date":"2018-07-03T15:40:39","date_gmt":"2018-07-03T19:40:39","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/5-3-proofreading-for-punctuation\/"},"modified":"2023-12-19T21:00:09","modified_gmt":"2023-12-20T02:00:09","slug":"5-3-proofreading-for-punctuation","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/5-3-proofreading-for-punctuation\/","title":{"raw":"5.3: Proofreading for Punctuation","rendered":"5.3: Proofreading for Punctuation"},"content":{"raw":"&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Identify and correct punctuation errors involving commas, apostrophes, colons and semicolons, parentheses and brackets, quotation marks, hyphens and dashes, question and exclamation marks, and periods.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Plan, write, revise, and edit short documents and messages that are organized, complete, and tailored to specific audiences.\r\n<ol type=\"i\">\r\n \t<li>Apply proper use of sentence structure, grammar, and punctuation.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use a systematic approach to edit, revise, and proofread.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Spell, punctuate, and use vocabulary correctly.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Edit and proofread documents to eliminate errors.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Revise documents to improve clarity, correctness, and coherence.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\nAs the little marks added between words, punctuation is like a system of traffic signs: it guides the reader towards the intended meaning of the words just as road signs guide drivers to their destination. They tell the reader when to go, when to pause, when to stop, when to go again, when to pay close attention, and when to turn <a href=\"https:\/\/penguinrandomhouse.ca\/books\/294386\/eats-shoots-and-leaves-by-lynne-truss\/excerpt\">(Truss, 2003, p. 7)<\/a>. They\u2019re also crucial for avoiding accidents. A paragraph without punctuation\u2014no periods, commas, apostrophes, etc.\u2014quickly spins out into utter nonsense and kills the reader\u2019s understanding of the writer\u2019s meaning.\r\n\r\nPunctuation that\u2019s merely missing or unnecessary here and there can confuse a reader and even lead to expensive lawsuits if they plague contentious documents like contracts. To anyone who knows how to use them, seeing punctuation mistakes in someone else\u2019s writing makes that other person look sloppy and amateurish. Punctuation errors by adult native English speakers look especially bad because they reflect poorly on their education and attention to detail, especially if they\u2019re habitual mistakes. The critical reader looks down on anyone who hasn\u2019t figured out how to use their own language in their 20+ years of immersion in it. Not knowing the difference between a colon and semicolon, for instance, is like not knowing the difference between a cucumber and a zucchini; sure they look alike from a distance, but they\u2019re completely different species and serve different culinary functions. If you don\u2019t know these differences by the time you\u2019re an adult, however, it doesn\u2019t take much to learn.\r\n\r\nIn this section, we focus on how to spot and correct common punctuation errors, starting with commas because most problems with people\u2019s writing in general are related to missing and misused commas. The goal is to help you avoid making mistakes that can potentially embarrass you in the eyes of people who should be taking you seriously.\r\n<h2><a id=\"menu\"><\/a>Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/h2>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#531\">5.3.1: Commas<\/a> ( , )<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#532\">5.3.2: Apostrophes<\/a> ( \u2019 )<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#533\">5.3.3: Colons<\/a> ( : )<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#534\">5.3.4: Semicolons<\/a> ( ; )<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#535\">5.3.5: Parentheses<\/a> ( )<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#536\">5.3.6: Brackets<\/a> [ ]<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#537\">5.3.7: Quotation Marks<\/a> ( \u201c \u201d )<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#538\">5.3.8: Hyphens<\/a> ( - )<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#539\">5.3.9: Long Dashes<\/a> ( \u2014 )<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#5310\">5.3.10: Question Marks<\/a> ( ? )<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#5311\">5.3.11: Exclamation Marks<\/a> ( ! )<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#5312\">5.3.12: Periods<\/a> ( . )<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h1><a id=\"531\"><\/a>5.3.1: Commas<\/h1>\r\nMost punctuation problems are comma-related because of the important role commas play in providing readers with guidance on how a sentence is organized and is to be read to understand the writer\u2019s intended meaning. As we saw in <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences\/#432\">\u00a74.3.2<\/a>, commas signal to the reader where one clause ends and another begins in compound and complex sentences, but they serve several other roles as well. We use commas in four general ways, each with several variations and special cases. To these we can add rules about where not to add commas, since many writers confuse their readers by putting commas where they shouldn\u2019t go. Most style guides advocate for using as few commas as possible, though you certainly must use them wherever needed to avoid ambiguities that lead readers astray. Closely follow the sixteen rules below to guide your reader towards your intended meaning and avoid confusing them with comma misplacement.\r\n<h2><a id=\"crmenu\"><\/a>Quick Rules: Commas<\/h2>\r\nClick on the rules below to see further explanations, examples, advice on what to look for when proofreading, and demonstrations of how to correct common comma errors associated with each one.\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;height: 732px;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr11\">Comma Rule 1.1<\/a><\/th>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a comma before coordinating conjunctions in compound sentences.<\/strong>\r\n<em>The installers came to do their work at 8am<strong>, and<\/strong> the regulators came to inspect the installation by the end of the day.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 71px\">\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 71px\"><a href=\"#cr12\">Comma Rule 1.2<\/a><\/th>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 71px\"><strong>Don\u2019t put a comma between independent clauses in a compound sentence if not followed by a coordinating conjunction.<\/strong>\r\n<em>Our main concern is patient safety; we don\u2019t want any therapeutic intervention to cause harm.<\/em> (semicolon rather than a comma after \u201csafety\u201d)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr21\">Comma Rule 2.1<\/a><\/th>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a comma after introductory subordinate clauses, phrases, or words preceding main clauses.<\/strong>\r\n<em><strong>If<\/strong> we can\u2019t secure investor funding and launch the site by April, the clients will likely go elsewhere.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 55px\">\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 55px\"><a href=\"#cr22\">Comma Rule 2.2<\/a><\/th>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 55px\"><strong>Don\u2019t put a comma after main clauses followed by subordinate clauses or phrases unless the latter strikes a contrast with the former.<\/strong>\r\n<em>They\u2019re paying us a visit <strong>because<\/strong> they haven\u2019t seen us in a while.<\/em> (no comma before \u201cbecause\u201d)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr31\">Comma Rule 3.1<\/a><\/th>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put commas around parenthetical words, phrases, or clauses.<\/strong>\r\n<em>See my portfolio<strong>, which<\/strong> includes my best work, on ArtStation.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr32\">Comma Rule 3.2<\/a><\/th>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a comma before contrasting coordinate elements, end-of-sentence shifts, and omitted repetitions.<\/strong>\r\n<em>He said, \u201cgo to Customer Service<strong>, not<\/strong> the checkout,\u201d <strong>didn\u2019t he?<\/strong><\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 55px\">\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 55px\"><a href=\"#cr33\">Comma Rule 3.3<\/a><\/th>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 55px\"><strong>Put a comma before sentence-ending free-modifier phrases that describe elements at the beginning or middle of sentences.<\/strong>\r\n<em>We are putting in long hours on the report<strong>, writing frantically<\/strong>.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 55px\">\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 55px\"><a href=\"#cr34\">Comma Rule 3.4<\/a><\/th>\r\n<td style=\"width: 750%;height: 55px\"><strong>Put commas around higher levels of organization in dates, places, addresses, names, and numbers.<\/strong>\r\n<em>Send your ticket to Gina Kew, <strong>RN,<\/strong> in Ottawa, <strong>Ontario,<\/strong> by Tuesday, October 9, <strong>2018,<\/strong> for your chance to win the $5,000,000 prize.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr35\">Comma Rule 3.5<\/a><\/th>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a comma between a signal phrase and a quotation.<\/strong>\r\n<em>The reporter<strong> replied,<\/strong> \u201cYes, this is strictly off the record.\u201d<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr36\">Comma Rule 3.6<\/a><\/th>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Don\u2019t put commas around restrictive relative clauses (before that).<\/strong>\r\n<em>The purchased item <strong>that we agreed to return<\/strong> is now completely lost.<\/em> (no comma before \u201cthat\u201d and after \u201creturn\u201d)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 55px\">\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 55px\"><a href=\"#cr37\">Comma Rule 3.7<\/a><\/th>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 55px\"><strong>Don\u2019t put commas between subjects and their predicates.<\/strong>\r\n<em>The just <strong>reward<\/strong> for the difficult and dangerous job that Kyle performed for his clientele <strong>was<\/strong> the knowledge that they were safe.<\/em> (no comma before \u201cwas\u201d)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr41\">Comma Rule 4.1<\/a><\/th>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put commas between each item in a series, including the last two items.<\/strong>\r\n<em>You must be <strong>kind, conscientious,<\/strong> and <strong>caring<\/strong> in this line of work.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr42\">Comma Rule 4.2<\/a><\/th>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put commas between two or more coordinate adjectives.<\/strong>\r\n<em>It was a <strong>cool, crisp, bright<\/strong> autumn morning.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr43\">Comma Rule 4.3<\/a><\/th>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Don\u2019t put a comma after the final coordinate adjective.<\/strong>\r\n<em>The team devised a <strong>daring, ambitious<\/strong> plan.<\/em> (no comma after \u201cambitious\u201d)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 55px\">\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 55px\"><a href=\"#cr44\">Comma Rule 4.4<\/a><\/th>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 55px\"><strong>Don\u2019t put a comma between non-coordinate adjectives.<\/strong>\r\n<em>David played his Candy Apple Red \u201957 reissue Fender Stratocaster electric guitar like he was flying a Saturn V rocket to the moon.<\/em> (no comma between the non-coordinate adjectives throughout)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 53px\">\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 53px\"><a href=\"#cr45\">Comma Rule 4.5<\/a><\/th>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 53px\"><strong>Don\u2019t put commas between two coordinate nouns or verbs.<\/strong>\r\n<em>Tesla <strong>and<\/strong> Edison invented <strong>and<\/strong> patented a complete circuit of electricity distribution systems <strong>and<\/strong> consumption devices.<\/em> (no commas before any \u201cand\u201d here)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2>Extended Explanations<\/h2>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cr11\"><\/a>Comma Rule 1.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a comma before coordinating conjunctions in compound sentences.<\/h3>\r\nPut a comma before the <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=1566#coo\">coordinating conjunction<\/a> (e.g., and, but, so; Darling, 2014a) that joins two independent clauses in a compound sentence. A compound sentence contains two or more clauses that can stand on their own as sentences (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#t432b\/\">Table 4.3.2b<\/a> for more on compounds sentences) with a different subject in each clause.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We were having the time of our lives<strong>, and<\/strong> our lucky streak was far from over.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction \u201cand\u201d joining the independent clause beginning with the subject \u201cWe\u201d and another beginning with the subject \u201cour lucky streak.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The first round of layoffs was welcomed by all<strong>, but<\/strong> the second devastated morale.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction \u201cbut\u201d joining the independent clause beginning with the subject \u201cThe first round\u201d and another beginning with the subject \u201cthe second.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The management blamed external factors<strong>, yet<\/strong> none of the company\u2019s blunders would have happened under good leadership.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction \u201cyet\u201d joining the independent clause beginning with the subject \u201cThe management\u201d and another beginning with the subject \u201cnone.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You can take advantage of this golden opportunity<strong>, or<\/strong> a thousand other investors will take advantage of it instead as soon as they know about it.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction \u201cor\u201d joining the independent clause beginning with the subject \u201cYou\u201d and another beginning with the subject \u201ca thousand.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>He didn\u2019t see the necessity of lean principles<strong>, nor<\/strong> would they have made sense in a business model based on inefficiency.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction \u201cnor\u201d joining the independent clause beginning with the subject \u201cHe\u201d and another beginning with the subject \u201cthey.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Market forces left them behind<strong>, for<\/strong> the law of supply and demand isn\u2019t necessarily a force for social justice.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction \u201cfor\u201d joining the independent clause beginning with the subject \u201cMarket forces\u201d and another beginning with the subject \u201cthe law.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The competition started to heat up<strong>, so<\/strong> we did everything we could to protect our assets.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction \u201cso\u201d joining the independent clause beginning with the subject \u201cThe competition\u201d and another beginning with the subject \u201cwe.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5 style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Exception:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">If the two independent clauses are short (five words or fewer), the comma may be unnecessary.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You bring the wine and we\u2019ll make dinner.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma is unnecessary before the coordinating conjunction \u201cand\u201d joining the two short, four-word independent clauses beginning with the subjects \u201cYou\u201d and \u201cwe.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe comma tells the reader to pause a little after one independent clause ends and before the coordinating conjunction signals that another (with a new subject) is joining it to make a compound sentence. In each of the examples sentences above, the <strong>independent clause<\/strong> on either side of the comma-conjunction combination could stand on its own as a sentence (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences\/#431\">\u00a74.3.1<\/a>-<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences\/#432\">\u00a74.3.2<\/a> for more on sentence structure and independent clauses). In the first example above, for instance, we could replace the comma and conjunction with a period, then capitalize the o in \u201cour,\u201d and both would be grammatically correct sentences. We combine them with a comma and the conjunction<em> and<\/em>, however, to clarify the relationship between the two ideas. The comma signals that these are coordinated clauses rather than noun or verb phrases.\r\n\r\nIf the subject were the same in both clauses, however, both the comma and subject of the second clause would be unnecessary. In that case, the sentence would just be a one-subject clause with a compound predicate\u2014that is, two coordinated verbs (see <a href=\"#cr44\">Comma Rule 4.4<\/a> below). Consider the following examples:\r\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We were having the time of our lives and would continue to enjoy that lucky streak.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The subject \u201cwe\u201d is the same in the independent clauses \u201cWe were having the time of our lives\u201d and \u201cwe would continue to enjoy that lucky streak,\u201d so the comma and second \u201cwe\u201d are omitted to make a compound predicate joining the verbs \u201cwere having\u201d and \u201cwould continue\u201d with the coordinating conjunction \u201cand.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>They won the battle but lost the war.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The subject \u201cThey\u201d is the same in the independent clauses \u201cThey won the battle\u201d and \u201cthey lost the war,\u201d so the comma and second \u201cthey\u201d are omitted to make compound predicate joining the verbs \u201cwon\u201d and \u201clost\u201d with the coordinating conjunction \u201cbut.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for run-on sentences (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/5-2-proofreading-for-grammar#5212\/\">\u00a75.2.1.2<\/a> above), which are sentences that omit a comma before the coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses. Keep an eye out for the seven coordinating conjunctions <em><strong>f<\/strong>or, <strong>a<\/strong>nd, <strong>n<\/strong>or, <strong>b<\/strong>ut, <strong>o<\/strong>r, <strong>y<\/strong>et,<\/em> and <em><strong>s<\/strong>o<\/em> (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#t432a\/\">Table 4.3.2a<\/a> and use the mnemonic acronym <strong><em>fanboys<\/em><\/strong> to remember them). Simply add a comma before the conjunction if the independent clause on either side of the conjunction could stand on its own as a sentence because it has a subject and predicate (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#431\/\">\u00a74.3.1<\/a> for more on sentence structure).\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We were losing money with each acquisition <strong>but<\/strong> our long-term plan was total market dominance.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We were losing money with each acquisition <strong>but<span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span><\/strong> our long-term plan was total market dominance.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We were losing money with each acquisition<strong><span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span> but<\/strong> our long-term plan was total market dominance.<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the example above, the coordinating conjunction \u201cbut\u201d joins the two independent clauses beginning with the subjects \u201cWe\u201d and \u201cOur long-term plan.\u201d Omitting the comma in the first example makes the sentence a run-on. Misplacing the comma after the conjunction in the second miscues the reader to pause after, rather than before, the conjunction. The easy fix is just to add the comma or move it so it goes before the conjunction.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#crmenu\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cr12\"><\/a>Comma Rule 1.2: Don\u2019t put a comma between independent clauses in a compound sentence if not followed by a coordinating conjunction.<\/h3>\r\nDon\u2019t put a comma between two independent clauses if it\u2019s not followed by a coordinating conjunction because this is a <strong>comma splice<\/strong> sentence error (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/5-2-proofreading-for-grammar#5211\/\">\u00a75.2.1.1<\/a> above). We have two distinct ways of forming a compound sentence (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#432\/\">\u00a74.3.2<\/a> above) and a comma splice confuses the two. One way of making a compound sentence is to join independent clauses by placing a comma and one of the seven \u201cfanboys\u201d coordinating conjunctions between them (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#t432a\/\">Table 4.3.2a<\/a> for the coordinating conjunctions). Simply omitting the coordinating conjunction after the comma makes a comma splice. The other way of making a compound sentence is to end the first clause with a semicolon when it doesn\u2019t make sense to use any of the coordinating conjunctions to establish a certain relationship between the clauses (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences\/#t432b\">Table \u00a74.3.2b<\/a> on sentence varieties for more on compound sentences and <a href=\"#scr1\">Semicolon Rule 1<\/a> below). Using a comma instead of a semicolon in such compound sentences makes a comma splice.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for commas separating two independent clauses (clauses that can stand on their own as sentences because they each have a subject and predicate) without any of the seven coordinating conjunctions (<em><strong>f<\/strong>or, <strong>a<\/strong>nd, <strong>n<\/strong>or, <strong>b<\/strong>ut, <strong>o<\/strong>r, <strong>y<\/strong>et,<\/em> or <em><strong>s<\/strong>o<\/em>) following the comma.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The first proposal was from the Davidson group, the second came from a company we hadn\u2019t seen before.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The first proposal was from the Davidson group; the second came from a company we hadn\u2019t seen before.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The first proposal was from the Davidson group; <strong>but<\/strong> the second came from a company we hadn\u2019t seen before.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Though the first proposal was from the Davidson group, the second came from a company we hadn\u2019t seen before.<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the incorrect example above, the comma separates two independent clauses that can stand on their own as sentences if you replaced the comma with a period and capitalized the t in \u201cthe second.\u201d You have three options for fixing the comma splice corresponding to the three examples above:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Replace the comma with a semicolon to make a compound sentence.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Add a coordinating conjunction, such as but, to make a compound sentence that clarifies the relationship between the clauses.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Add a subordinating conjunction, such as Though, at the beginning of the first clause to make it a dependent (a.k.a. a subordinate) clause. This makes the sentence a complex one (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#432\/\">\u00a74.3.2<\/a> above for more on subordinating conjunctions and complex sentences).<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#crmenu\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cr21\"><\/a>Comma Rule 2.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a comma after introductory subordinate clauses, phrases, or words preceding main clauses.<\/h3>\r\nPut a comma before the main clause (a.k.a. independent clause) when it is preceded by an introductory word, phrase (e.g., a prepositional or participial phrase), or subordinate clause (a.k.a. dependent clause) in a complex sentence.\r\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>If<\/strong> we follow our project plan\u2019s critical path down to the minute, we will finish on time and on budget.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the subordinate clause beginning with the subordinating conjunction \u201cIf\u201d from the main clause (beginning with the subject \u201cwe\u201d) that follows it.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>When<\/strong> my ship comes in, I\u2019ll be repaying every favour anyone ever did for me.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction \u201cWhen,\u201d from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject \u201cI.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>To<\/strong> make ourselves better understood, we\u2019ve left post-it notes all around the room.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the introductory infinitive phrase, beginning with the infinitive verb \u201cTo make,\u201d from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject \u201cwe.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>After<\/strong> the flood, the Poulins took out some expensive disaster insurance.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the introductory prepositional phrase, beginning with the preposition \u201cafter,\u201d from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject \u201cthe Poulins.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Greeting<\/strong> me at the door, she said that I was a half hour early and would have to wait to see the director.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the introductory participial phrase, beginning with the present <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/participle.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">participle<\/a> (Simmons, 2001a) \u201cGreeting,\u201d from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject \u201cshe.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The downturn of 2008 now <strong>forgotten,<\/strong> the investors threw other people\u2019s money around like it was 2007 again.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the introductory absolute phrase, ending with the past <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/participle.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">participle<\/a> (Simmons, 2001a) \u201cforgotten,\u201d from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject \u201cthe investors.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Delighted,<\/strong> she accepted their offer even with the conditions.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the single-word introductory past-participle <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/appositive.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">appositive<\/a> (Simmons, 2001b) \u201cDelighted\u201d from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject \u201cshe.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Therefore,<\/strong> you are encouraged to submit your timesheet the Friday before payday.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the introductory <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/conjunctiveadverb.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">conjunctive adverb<\/a> (Simmons, 2007b) \u201cTherefore\u201d from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject \u201cyou.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>However,<\/strong> there\u2019s not much we can do if the patient refuses our help.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the introductory conjunctive adverb \u201cHowever\u201d from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject \u201cyou.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Yes,<\/strong> please go ahead and submit your payment.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the single-word introductory interjection \u201cYes\u201d from the main clause imperative clause that follows it, the core of which is the verb \u201cgo.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Hello,<\/strong> Claude:<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks the pause between the greeting word and name address in a respectful, semiformal salutation opening email.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Exception:\u00a0<\/strong>The comma is unnecessary if the introductory dependent clause or prepositional phrase is short (fewer than four words) and its omission doesn\u2019t cause confusion.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>At this point we\u2019re not accepting any applications.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> Omitting the comma after the short, three-word prepositional phrase doesn\u2019t cause confusion.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe comma tells the reader to pause a little prior to the main clause as if to say, \u201cOkay, here\u2019s where the sentence really begins with the main-clause subject and predicate.\u201d The main clause is the main point, whereas the subordinate clause that precedes it is relatively minor, providing context.\r\n\r\nRecall from the lesson on sentence varieties (<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#432\/\">\u00a74.3.2<\/a>) that a complex sentence is one where a <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=1566#sub\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">subordinating conjunction<\/a> (Darling, 2014a) begins an independent or subordinate clause, which cannot stand on its own as a sentence. A subordinate clause (a.k.a. dependent clause) becomes part of a proper sentence only when it joins a main (a.k.a. independent) clause. When that subordinate clause precedes the main clause, a comma separates them. The same is true when that main clause is preceded by a <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=3257\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">phrase<\/a> (e.g., prepositional, infinitive, participial, gerund, etc.; Darling, 2014b) or even just a word such as an appositive participle (as in the \u201cDelighted\u201d example above) or <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=1543#usi\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">conjunctive adverb<\/a> (Darling, 2014c), as in the \u201cTherefore\u201d example above.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for words, phrases, or clauses preceding the main clause without a comma separating them. For this, you must know how to spot the main clause when it comes later in the sentence; in other words, you need to be able to spot the main grammatical subject (the doer of the action) and predicate (the action itself; review <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#431\/\">\u00a74.3.1<\/a>\u2019s introduction to sentence structure). If the main subject is preceded by words, phrases, or clauses but not a comma, then you need to add one before the main clause.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Because<\/strong> first impressions are lasting ones you must always come out swinging at the beginning of your presentation.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Because<\/strong> first impressions are lasting ones, you must always come out swinging at the beginning of your presentation.<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the example above, \u201cyou\u201d is the main grammatical subject that begins the main clause, whose main verb is \u201ccome.\u201d The subordinate clause begins with the subordinating conjunction \u201cBecause\u201d and ends at \u201cones,\u201d so the comma must follow \u201cones\u201d to separate it from the beginning of the main clause.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#crmenu\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cr22\"><\/a>Comma Rule 2.2:\u00a0 Don\u2019t put a comma after main clauses followed by subordinate clauses or phrases unless the latter strikes a contrast with the former.<\/h3>\r\nDon\u2019t put a comma after a main clause (a.k.a. independent clause) if it is followed by a subordinate (a.k.a. dependent) clause or phrase in a complex sentence. If the subordinate clause begins with a contrasting subordinating conjunction such as \u201calthough,\u201d a comma must separate the two clauses.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You can't apply for permits from the city\u00a0\u00a0<strong>because<\/strong> you haven't even secured funding yet.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma is unnecessary because the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction \u201cbecause,\u201d follows the main clause rather than precedes it, so you can read it without a pause.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We will finish on time and on budget <strong>if<\/strong> we follow the critical path of our plan to the minute.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma is unnecessary because the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction \u201cif,\u201d follows the main clause rather than precedes it, so you can read it without a pause.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I\u2019ll be repaying every favour anyone ever did for me <strong>when<\/strong> my ship comes in.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma is unnecessary because the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction \u201cwhen,\u201d follows the main clause rather than precedes it, so you can read it without a pause.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The Poulins took out some expensive disaster insurance <strong>after<\/strong> the flood.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma is unnecessary because the prepositional phrase, beginning with the preposition \u201cafter,\u201d follows the main clause rather than precedes it, so you can read it without a pause.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We\u2019re not accepting any applications at this time<strong>, though<\/strong> we might make an exception for a truly remarkable applicant.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma is necessary because the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction \u201cthough,\u201d strikes a contrast with the main clause that precedes it, making a pause appropriate.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We could easily hire a new full-time assistant in the fourth quarter<strong>, unless<\/strong> our profit margin drops below 5% in the third.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma is necessary because the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction \u201cunless,\u201d strikes a contrast with the main clause that precedes it, making a pause appropriate.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe absence of the comma tells the reader to keep reading smoothly without pause between the main and subordinate clauses. In the case of the contrasting subordinate clause, however, the comma signals a pause as if to say that the subordinate clause is a kind of afterthought or qualification added to the main clause.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for commas unnecessarily added before subordinating conjunctions (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#t432a\/\">Table 4.3.2a<\/a> for a list of subordinating conjunctions) in complex sentences where the subordinate clause follows the main clause and doesn\u2019t strike a contrast with it.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The technician is switching to plan B<strong><span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span> because<\/strong> the manifold blew a gasket.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The technician is switching to plan B <strong>because<\/strong> the manifold blew a gasket.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The Goliath Games label was founded in 2003<strong><span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span> to<\/strong> create the most innovative and progressive interactive entertainment.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The Goliath Games label was founded in 2003 <strong>to<\/strong> create the most innovative and progressive interactive entertainment.<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the examples above, the comma is simply unnecessary and should be deleted. It would be necessary, however, if the first sentence began with the subordinate clause beginning with \u201cBecause . . . \u201d or after the infinitive phrase if the second sentence began with \u201cTo create . . . .\u201d In those cases, the comma would follow \u201cgasket\u201d and \u201c2003\u201d respectively and you would change the first letter in the main clauses to lowercase.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#crmenu\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cr31\"><\/a>Comma Rule 3.1: Put commas around parenthetical words, phrases, or clauses.<\/h3>\r\nPut commas before and after parenthetical or non-essential words, phrases, or clauses that would leave the sentence grammatically correct if you omitted them. Placed in the middle of a sentence between the subject and predicate or at the end of the sentence, however, those elements lend further detail to the words or phrases that come just before them. Commas in this way function as a lighter form of parentheses (see <a href=\"#535\">\u00a75.3.5<\/a> below).\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The promotion went to Mr. Speck<strong>, who<\/strong> neither wanted nor deserved it, to make it look like something was being done about the glass ceiling.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> Like parentheses, the commas mark off the relative clause beginning with the relative pronoun \u201cwho\u201d in the middle of the sentence, lending more information on the word coming just before (\u201cMr. Speck\u201d).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Global Solutions went on a hiring spree<strong>, which<\/strong> was well-timed given the change in telecoms legislation that was about to come down.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks the switch to a restrictive relative clause beginning with the relative pronoun \u201cwhich\u201d after the main clause, lending more information to its final word, \u201chiring spree.\u201d The restrictive relative clause is non-essential in the sense that the main clause still means the same thing if the restrictive clause were omitted.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We\u2019ll get back to you as soon as possible<strong>, needless to say<\/strong>.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks the switch to an interjection tacked onto the end of the sentence.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The second customer<strong>, on the other hand,<\/strong> absolutely loved the new colour.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks off a parenthetical prepositional phrase separating the subject from the predicate in the middle of the sentence.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The time for expressing interest in the buy-out option<strong>, however,<\/strong> had long since passed.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the conjunctive adverb \u201chowever\u201d interjected between the subject and the predicate in the middle of the sentence.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We\u2019ve heard that<strong>, in fact,<\/strong> the delegation won\u2019t be coming after all.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off a parenthetical prepositional phrase interjected between the subject and the predicate in the middle of the sentence.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Always treat the customer with respect, unless of course certain behaviours<strong>, such as belligerent drunkenness,<\/strong> compel you to take a firm stand against them.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off a parenthetical phrase offering an example interjected between the subject and the predicate in the middle of the dependent clause.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The nicest thing about you<strong>, Josh,<\/strong> is that you get the best work out of your employees by only praising achievements rather than criticizing mistakes.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off a parenthetical appositive address clarifying who \u201cyou\u201d is between the subject and the predicate in the middle of the sentence.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I sent the application to Grace Garrison<strong>, the departmental secretary,<\/strong> last Tuesday.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off a parenthetical appositive noun phrase identifying the role of the person named.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Exceptions:<\/strong>\u00a0When the appositive is so close to the noun it modifies that the sentence wouldn\u2019t make sense without it, omit the commas. Also omit commas:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Before such as when exemplifying non-parenthetically<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Around restrictive relative clauses (i.e., those beginning with that; see <a href=\"#cr36\">Comma Rule 3.6<\/a>)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>If too many commas would clutter the sentence, in which case you would drop any comma that wouldn\u2019t cause confusion if omitted<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Departmental secretary Grace Garrison received the application Tuesday.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> You can omit commas around the appositive following \u201cDepartmental secretary\u201d because \u201cDepartmental secretary received the application\u201d wouldn\u2019t make sense unless \u201cThe\u201d preceded it.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>They offer competitive fringe benefits <strong>such as<\/strong> health and dental coverage, three weeks\u2019 paid vacation per year, and sick leave.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma would be excessive before the \u201csuch as\u201d phrase introducing the list of examples unless it appeared as a parenthetical aside in the middle of the sentence.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We don\u2019t have to go, and<strong> of course<\/strong> they don\u2019t have to take us.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> Adding commas around \u201cof course,\u201d though technically correct, would be excessive and look cluttered, so the parenthetical commas drop in priority to the comma separating compounded independent clauses.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nAs light alternatives to parentheses, these parenthetical commas tell the reader to pause a little when a non-essential (a.k.a. parenthetical) point is interjected or tacked on to explain the word or phrase preceding it. Common parenthetical phrases include:\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"0\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">all things considered\r\nas a matter of fact\r\nas a result\r\nas a rule\r\nat the same time\r\nconsequently\r\nfor example\r\nfurthermore<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">however\r\nin addition\r\nincidentally\r\nin fact\r\nin my opinion\r\nin the first place\r\nin the meantime\r\nmoreover<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">needless to say\r\nnevertheless\r\nno doubt\r\nof course\r\non the contrary\r\non the other hand\r\ntherefore\r\nunder the circumstances<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nInterestingly, this rule also helped the Atlantic Canada telephone company Bell Aliant cancel a contract with Rogers Communications over the use of telephone poles prior to Rogers\u2019s intended five-year term, costing Rogers a million dollars and resulting in a bitter court battle in 2006. The dispute concerned the following sentence in the middle of the 14-page contract:\r\n<blockquote>This agreement shall be effective from the date it is made and shall continue in force for a period of five (5) years from the date it is made, and thereafter for successive five (5) year terms, unless and until terminated by one year prior notice in writing by either party.<\/blockquote>\r\nWithout the comma after \u201cterms,\u201d you could read the contract as Rogers intended, which was to say that it could be terminated with a year\u2019s notice any time after the first five years. By adding the second comma to make the \u201cand thereafter\u201d phrase parenthetical and therefore non-essential, however, Rogers in effect made the \u201cunless . . .\u201d clause apply to the first five-year term as well as to any subsequent term. That one misplaced comma thus gave Bell Aliant the right to cancel at any time.\r\n\r\nCiting this parenthetical comma rule, the Canadian Radio-Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) ruled in favour of Bell Aliant at Rogers\u2019s expense <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2006\/10\/25\/business\/worldbusiness\/25comma.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">(Austen, 2006)<\/a>. The CRTC later reversed its ruling when Rogers invoked the less ambiguous French version of the contract to force Aliant to return to its contractual obligations. Still, Rogers ultimately paid heavily for un-recouped losses during the contract\u2019s cancellation and in legal fees throughout the contract dispute, which dragged out till 2009 <a href=\"http:\/\/www.lawnow.org\/comma-law\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">(Bowal &amp; Layton, 2014)<\/a>. You can bet Rogers pays people to ensure its contracts are punctuated unambiguously now.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for words, phrases, or clauses that could be deleted from a sentence without making it grammatically incomplete. Add commas if none mark off the parenthetical word, phrase, or clause, or if the first is there but not the second (or vice versa) in the case of parenthetical elements ending a sentence.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Emphasizing your spoken points with gesticulation which may sound like a dirty word can certainly help your audience understand them better.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Emphasizing your spoken points with gesticulation<strong>, which may sound like a dirty word,<\/strong> can certainly help your audience understand them better.<\/em><\/p>\r\nHere, the non-essential parenthetical relative clause beginning with the non-restrictive relative pronoun which (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-4-forming-effective-paragraphs#t442a\/\">Table 4.4.2a<\/a>, #7, for relative pronouns) and ending with \u201cword,\u201d could be deleted from the sentence and leave it grammatically complete. However, as an interjection, it clarifies the word that precedes it (\u201cgesticulation\u201d), and therefore has a place in the sentence, albeit one set apart from the rest.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Let\u2019s start cooking Grandpa!<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Let\u2019s start cooking<strong>, Grandpa!<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\r\nHere, the comma is crucial in signalling that Grandpa is being addressed. Without the comma, the sentence recommends preparing Grandpa to be cooked and presumably eaten, which is hopefully not the intended meaning.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#crmenu\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cr32\"><\/a>Comma Rule 3.2: Put a comma before contrasting coordinate elements, end-of-sentence shifts, and omitted repetitions.<\/h3>\r\nPut commas before end-of-sentence:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Questions<\/strong> that seek confirmation of the main-clause point by asking the opposite<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Phrases<\/strong> that begin with not and state what the main-clause point seeks to correct<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Coordinate elements<\/strong> that contrast or further extend the main-clause point<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>This presentation seems like it\u2019s gone on for days<strong>, doesn\u2019t it?<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks off the question added to the end of the sentence to ask whether the opposite of the main-clause point is true as a way of seeking agreement with it.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Please send the document to Accounts Receivable<strong>, not Payable<\/strong>.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks off the contrasting element added to the end, abbreviating the clause \u201cdo not send the document to Accounts Payable,\u201d which has the exact structure of the main clause, but shows only the words that differ from the main-clause wording rather than repeating most of it to make a compound sentence.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The potential we envision for AI is that it will at best bring a world of convenience and leisure<strong>, at worst<\/strong> total annihilation.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks off the clause that states the complementary contrast to the first statement by omitting the repeated relative clause root \u201cit will . . . bring.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The president\u2019s statement to the media seemed incoherent<strong>, even demented.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks off the clause that extends the main clause statement assuming the same root structure.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe comma cues the reader to pause before the sentence shifts to contrasting elements, as well as to indicate that some phrasing from the first part of the sentence is being assumed rather than repeated in the second.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for run-on-like gaps where no punctuation separates the main clause from questions or contrasting phrases tacked on to the end of a sentence, and add the comma.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>This is a great time to be alive isn\u2019t it?<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>This is a great time to be alive<strong><span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span> isn\u2019t it?<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\r\nHere, the main clause ends with \u201calive,\u201d and the follow-up recasting of the statement as an interrogative sentence (\u201cisn\u2019t this the best time to be alive?\u201d) abbreviated as \u201cisn\u2019t it?\u201d forms a run-on without any punctuation separating it from the main clause. The comma added between the clauses represents the words that were omitted to avoid repetition.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#crmenu\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cr33\"><\/a>Comma Rule 3.3: Put a comma before sentence-ending free-modifier phrases that describe elements at the beginning or middle of sentences.<\/h3>\r\nPut commas before phrases that appear at the end of a sentence but modify (describe) actions or things at the sentence\u2019s beginning or middle. As long as such phrases don\u2019t cause confusion with their ambiguity, they are free to either follow the noun they modify or appear at the end.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The MC desperately cued for applause<strong>, clapping aggressively<\/strong>.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks off the sentence-ending participial phrase starting with the present participle \u201cclapping\u201d describes the action \u201ccued\u201d in the middle of the sentence.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe comma signals to the reader that the phrase ending the sentence refers to something that came earlier in the sentence. Without a comma, the phrase would describe what came immediately before it.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for phrases (especially participial phrases\u2014words ending -ing) at the end of sentences without commas preceding them but not making sense. If they indeed have commas preceding them but the participle could refer to more than one thing in the main clause, resolve the ambiguity by moving the phrase closer to the thing it modifies.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The bellhop held out his hand for a gratuity smiling obsequiously.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The bellhop held out his hand for a gratuity<strong><span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span> smiling obsequiously.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\r\nHere, the omitted comma makes it seem like the gratuity is smiling obsequiously, which doesn\u2019t make sense. Adding the comma before \u201csmiling\u201d makes it clear that the bellhop mentioned earlier in the sentence is the one smiling.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The MC invited the plenary speaker to the stage<strong><span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span> bowing graciously.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Bowing graciously<span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span><\/strong> the MC invited the plenary speaker to the stage.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe participial phrase is ambiguous when placed at the end of the sentence because it\u2019s unclear whether the MC or plenary speaker is bowing graciously. Moving the participial phrase to the beginning so that it is in appositive relation to the noun it modifies clarifies the sentence to say that the MC is bowing.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#crmenu\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cr34\"><\/a>Comma Rule 3.4: Put commas around higher levels of organization in dates, places, addresses, names, and numbers.<\/h3>\r\nPut commas around the:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Year when preceded by a month and date<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Date when preceded by a day of the week<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Larger geographical region (e.g., province, state, country, etc.) when preceded by smaller one (e.g., city or town) in a sentence or long address line<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Title or credential (e.g., ND, MD, PhD) following a name<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Groups of thousands in large numbers<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The release date of April 14<strong>, 2019,<\/strong> will be honoured if there are no delays.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the year as parenthetical in the three-part date to ensure that there is no ambiguity about which April 14 (2018? 2020?) is intended.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We agreed to continue our meeting on Thursday<strong>, January 28,<\/strong> to cover the agenda items we didn\u2019t get to on Monday.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the calendar date as parenthetical after the day of the week to ensure that there is no ambiguity about which Thursday is intended.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Gord Downie was born in Amherstview<strong>, Ontario,<\/strong> to a traveling salesman father and stay-at-home mother.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the province as parenthetical after the smaller town to ensure that there is no ambiguity about which town is intended, assuming other towns in other provinces may share the same name.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Bowie was born David Robert Jones in London<strong>, England,<\/strong> on 8 January 1947.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the country as parenthetical after the city within it to ensure that there is no ambiguity about which city is intended (i.e., not the one in Ontario, Canada).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Send your inquiries to 1385 Woodroffe Avenue<strong>, Ottawa,<\/strong> ON \u00a0K26 1V8.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the larger geographical region in which the street is situated.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Please welcome Daria Rimini<strong>, RN,<\/strong> to the department.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the person\u2019s credentials as non-essential to her name rather than initials in her name.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Send your inquiries to Albert Irwin<strong>, Jr.,<\/strong> at the email address below.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the generational tag following the name.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You can always trust old George Wilson<strong>, Professor of English,<\/strong> to make a mountain of a molehill. <\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the individual\u2019s professional title following their name.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The awards for damages ranged anywhere from a token <strong>$4,882<\/strong> to a whopping <strong>$13,945,718<\/strong>.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off every group of thousand (three digits) to help the reader quickly recognize the magnitude of the number without counting the number of digits.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5 style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Exceptions:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Don\u2019t surround a year with commas if it follows only a month; use them only around years following a month and date. Also, drop the second comma if the larger geographical region is possessive in form.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Recording began in November 2005 and continued to February 2006.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> Commas are unnecessary in general two-part dates.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The charm of London<strong>, Ontario\u2019s<\/strong> street buskers almost rivals that of its UK namesake.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma following the possessive form of the larger geographical region would look even more awkward than this. Of course, the sentence could be reworded as \u201cThe street buskers\u2019 charm in London, Ontario, almost . . . .\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe commas tell the reader to pause a little within a detailed series of time, geographical, or name designations when adding a higher order of organization just as commas were used as light alternatives to parentheses in <a href=\"#cr31\">Comma Rule 3.1<\/a>.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for years added to three-part dates, larger geographical regions added after cities and towns, or credentials added after names with either no comma added on either side of that year, region, or credential, or added only before it but not after. Add both or the second comma. If the date only has the month and year, but a comma or two surrounds the date, delete commas.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We can probably fit you in for the procedure on Tuesday December 12.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We can probably fit you in for the procedure on Tuesday<strong><span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span> December 12<\/strong>.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Here, the month and date follow the day of the week without a comma. Just add one between them.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>They moved the release date to March 14<strong>, 2020<\/strong> to allow enough time for post-production.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>They moved the release date to March 14<strong><span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span> 2020<span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span><\/strong> to allow enough time for post-production.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Here, the year gets the first of its two parenthetical commas but not the second, so just add one after the year.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The company was founded in July<strong><span style=\"color: #993300\">, <\/span>1978<span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span><\/strong> to address an urgent need.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The company was founded in July 1978 to address an urgent need.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">The commas around the year are unnecessary because it\u2019s only a two-part date. Just delete them.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#531\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cr35\"><\/a>Comma Rule 3.5: Put a comma between a signal phrase and a quotation.<\/h3>\r\nPut commas between signal phrases and the quotations they introduce when the signal phrases end with a verb that gives rise to the quoted words or thoughts.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The chair of the meeting <strong>shouted<span style=\"color: #000000\">,<\/span><\/strong> \u201cWe cannot proceed unless we have order.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma separates the signal phrase ending with a verb from the quotation it introduces.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>\u201cStay the course,\u201d the supervisor <strong>advised,<\/strong> \u201cand you shall soon find success.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The parenthetical commas mark off the signal phrase interjected between quoted clauses.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You could tell she was<strong> thinking,<\/strong> \u201cIs this guy for real?\u201d<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma separates the signal phrase ending with a verb from the quotation it introduces even if the quotation is merely thought rather than said.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5 style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Exception:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">A comma is unnecessary if the signal phrase ends with the restrictive relative pronoun <em>that<\/em> or the quotation is a phrase incorporated into the sentence rather than a sentence or clause on its own.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The customer service rep said <strong>that<\/strong> \u201cThe offer expired on August 23, not the 24th\u201d and they have a \u201cno exceptions\u201d policy due to the perishable nature of the product.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The signal phrase ends with the restrictive relative pronoun that, which a comma doesn\u2019t follow but could replace, and \u201cno exceptions is a phrase rather than a clause or sentence.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The customer service representative confirmed \u201cAugust 23, not the 24\u201d was the expiration date.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> No comma follows the signal phrase because the quotation is just a phrase excerpt rather than a clause or sentence.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe comma cues the reader to pause as it abbreviates the relative pronoun that, which makes the comma unnecessary if it\u2019s included.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for missing commas around quotations and add them between the signal phrase ending with a verb and the quotation, or look for unnecessary commas that split a sentence unnaturally, such as going before or after the that that precedes a quotation if present), and delete them.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The authorization <strong>said \u201cGo<\/strong> for it.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The authorization <strong>said<span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span> \u201cGo<\/strong> for it.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\r\nHere, the signal phrase omits a comma between the main verb and the quotation, so adding one corrects the error.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The current contract says clearly <strong>that<span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span> \u201covertime<\/strong> is time and a half.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The current contract says clearly <strong>that \u201covertime<\/strong> is time and a half.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\r\nHere, a comma unnecessarily follows the relative pronoun that perhaps because the writer thought that a comma should always precede the quotation. You could either delete the comma or \u201cthat,\u201d but not both.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#531\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cr36\"><\/a>Comma Rule 3.6: Don\u2019t put commas around restrictive relative clauses (before that).<\/h3>\r\nDon\u2019t put a comma before a restrictive relative clause (e.g., beginning with the relative pronoun <em>who<\/em> or <em>that<\/em>) following a main clause.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The stocks that we all thought were going to offer the best returns are doing the worst.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> No commas surround the restrictive clause from \u201cthat\u201d to \u201creturns,\u201d which is somewhat parenthetical in that the sentence could grammatically function without it (\u201cThe stocks are doing the worst\u201d). However, this would be misleading because it implies that all the stocks are failing expectations, whereas the sentence focuses on only a subset. The vagueness resulting from omitting the restrictive clause proves that it is essential to the sentence\u2019s clarity.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The students who presented first set the bar high for those who followed.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> No commas surround the restrictive clause from \u201cwho\u201d to \u201cfirst.\u201d The clause is restrictive because it specifies a small group of students. Adding commas around the clause would make it non-restrictive (see <a href=\"#cr31\">Comma Rule 3.1<\/a> above) and would change the meaning of the sentence: it would mean that all the students presented first.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>She didn\u2019t say that we couldn\u2019t work together.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> No comma precedes the restrictive clause beginning with \u201cthat.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe absence of the comma tells the reader that the relative clause starting with the relative pronoun that or who is essential to the meaning of the sentence and should be read smoothly without pauses around it. For more on restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses, see <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/645\/1\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Introduction and General Usage in Defining Clauses<\/a> (Keck &amp; Angeli, 2018) and <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=3745\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Clauses<\/a> (Darling, 2014d).\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for commas preceding <em>that<\/em> or <em>who<\/em> and determine whether the meaning of the sentence would be significantly changed if you deleted the restrictive relative clause. If it would be, delete the commas.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You don\u2019t have to cite common-knowledge facts<strong><span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span> that<\/strong> every source you can find agrees on.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You don\u2019t have to cite common-knowledge facts that every source you can find agrees on.<\/em><\/p>\r\nHere, the restrictive relative clause beginning with <em>that<\/em> is essential to the meaning because it clarifies what kind of facts are common knowledge. It is not interchangeable with the non-restrictive relative clause beginning with <em>which<\/em>, which requires a comma before it because it is non-essential (see <a href=\"#\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Comma Rule 3.1<\/a> above). In the UK, writers often use \u201cwhich\u201d instead of \u201cthat\u201d even in non-restrictive relative clauses without the comma preceding them. In North America, however, we distinguish the relative clause types by using a comma and <em>which<\/em> for non-restrictive clauses and <em>that<\/em> without a comma for restrictive clauses.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The students<strong><span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span> who<\/strong> were caught plagiarizing<span style=\"color: #000000\">, <\/span>were each given a zero, whereas the rest did quite well.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The students who were caught plagiarizing were each given a zero, whereas the rest did quite well.<\/em><\/p>\r\nHere, the commas in the incorrect sentence say that all students were caught plagiarizing. Deleting the commas to make \u201cwho were caught plagiarizing\u201d a restrictive relative clause brings the sentence back to the intended meaning, which is that a subset of students were caught plagiarizing and the rest did well.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#531\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cr37\"><\/a>Comma Rule 3.7: Don\u2019t put commas between subjects and their predicates.<\/h3>\r\nDon\u2019t put a comma between a clause\u2019s subject (even if it\u2019s a long one) and predicate (the main verb action) if there are no parenthetical elements between them.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Participants who quit smoking because of the new treatment option were twice as likely to remain smoke-free as those who quit cold turkey.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> No comma separates the subject \u201cParticipants who . . . option\u201d from the predicate \u201cwere . . . turkey\u201d even though the subject is quite long at ten words.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5 style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Exception:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Adding a pair of commas between the subject and predicate is acceptable when they are divided by an interjection. See the fourth and fifth correct examples illustrating <a href=\"#cr31\">Comma Rule 3.1<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe absence of the comma tells the reader to read smoothly across the subject and predicate because they are the integral parts of a unified clause even if the subject is long.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for commas that separate the subject from the predicate when there are no parenthetical words or phrases, or non-restrictive clauses, separating them. For this, you must know how to spot the main-clause subject and predicate (review <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#431\/\">\u00a74.3.1<\/a> on sentence structure) and delete any stray commas that come between them.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>All the businesses that benefitted from the new regulatory environment following the passing of Bill 134, have given back to their community.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>All the business that benefitted from the new regulatory environment following the passing of Bill 134 have given back to their community.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe subject of the above sentence is a long one because, following the core noun \u201cbusinesses,\u201d it contains a restrictive relative clause beginning with <em>that<\/em>, which contains prepositional phrases (\u201cfrom the new . . .\u201d and \u201cof Bill 134\u201d) and a participial phrase (\u201cfollowing . . .\u201d). None of these length-extending units change the fact that there is no legitimate parenthetical interjection requiring commas between the subject and the predicate that begins with \u201chave given.\u201d The easy fix is just to delete the comma.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#531\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cr41\"><\/a>Comma Rule 4.1: Put commas between each item in a series, including the last two items.<\/h3>\r\nPut commas between each item in a series, including before the <em>and<\/em> or <em>or<\/em> that separates the second-to-last (a.k.a. penultimate) and last items, whether those items be words, phrases, or even clauses in a series.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>NASA sent the space shuttles Columbia<strong>,<\/strong> Challenger<strong>,<\/strong> Discovery<strong>,<\/strong> Atlantis<strong>,<\/strong> <strong>and<\/strong> Endeavour on 135 orbital missions from 1982 to 2011.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma follows each noun in a series up to the penultimate one before the and joining the last two.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I gave them the option of either researching the content<strong>,<\/strong> preparing the PowerPoint<strong>, or<\/strong> doing the actual presentation.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma follows each participial phrase in a series up to the penultimate one before the or joining the last two.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The presenters rehearsed before Week 5<strong>,<\/strong> during Reading Week<strong>,<\/strong> <strong>and<\/strong> again after Week 7.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma follows each prepositional phrase in a series up to the penultimate one before the and joining the last two.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Mick Jagger and Keith Richards set the stage for other singer-guitarist power duos like Robert Plant and Jimmy Page<strong>,<\/strong> Freddie Mercury and Brian May<strong>,<\/strong> Steven Tyler and Joe Perry<strong>,<\/strong> Axl Rose and Slash, <strong>and<\/strong> Anthony Kiedis and John Frusciante.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma follows each compound noun phrase in a series up to the penultimate one before the and joining the last two pairs.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I can\u2019t stand comma splices<strong>,<\/strong> you have no patience for run-ons<strong>, and<\/strong> she won\u2019t tolerate sentence fragments.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> In a compound sentence containing three independent clauses, a comma follows each clause up to the penultimate one before the <em>and<\/em> joining the last two.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe serial commas help separate each item in the series, and the one that comes before the coordinating conjunction and that joins the last two items (a.k.a. the \u201cOxford comma\u201d), helps resolve various ambiguities that may arise without it (see some below). The question of whether to use the Oxford comma has been a long-running debate. Some style guides, such as the Canadian Press, Associated Press, and even institutions like Algonquin College, recommend omitting it because they advocate for as few commas as possible. However, they say nothing about situations where omitting the Oxford comma creates unavoidable ambiguity\u2014that is, two interpretations that mean two very different things. The anti-Oxford comma side even has an anthem in the Grammy-winning indie band Vampire Weekend\u2019s 2008 debut-album single \u201cOxford Comma,\u201d which opens with the lyric \u201cWho gives a f**k about the Oxford comma?\u201d.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=P_i1xk07o4g[\/embed]\r\n\r\nHowever, grammarians, readers, and writers who care about clarity in writing, and even the plaintiffs awarded $5 million in a US civil suit (as well as the defendants paying the price) certainly care about the Oxford comma. The significant confusion and even conflict that results from its absence in clutch situations justifies its inclusion in all. For instance:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>In a 2017-2018 civil case that went nearly as far as the US Supreme Court, Oakhurst Dairy of Portland, Maine, was ordered to pay its delivery drivers $5 million due to the ambiguity caused by an omitted Oxford comma in state law. The law was soon amended to separate the last two items in a list of overtime pay exemptions to resolve the ambiguity <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/02\/09\/us\/oxford-comma-maine.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">(Victor, 2018)<\/a>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The inclusion or omission of the Oxford comma leads to two entirely different interpretations when names are listed. If you were to say, for instance, that you and two others must go to court, you would say, \u201cBeth, Ian, and I must go to court.\u201d Without the Oxford comma, however, you would be addressing Beth (who now isn\u2019t going to court) to tell her that just you and Ian are going: \u201cBeth, Ian and I must go to court,\u201d which is not what you originally meant.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Appositive relations between items in a series also create ambiguities when omitting the Oxford comma. If an actor winning a big award in front of a national audience were to say, \u201cI would like to thank my parents, God and Buffy Sainte-Marie,\u201d the absence of an Oxford comma makes \u201cGod and Buffy Sainte-Marie\u201d appear to be an appositive noun phrase modifying \u201cparents\u201d\u2014that is, she would imply that her parents are God and Buffy Sainte-Marie. By using the Oxford comma, she avoids this absurdity by thanking three entities: her parents, God, and Buffy Sainte-Marie\u2014as intended.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Omitting the Oxford comma is especially confusing if the items listed are a combination of paired and single items. If the list of pairs in the fourth correct example above omitted the Oxford comma, it would end with the absurdity of having the last four items appearing as singles with \u201cand\u201d awkwardly separating each: \u201c. . . Steven Tyler <strong>and<\/strong> Joe Perry, Axl Rose <strong>and<\/strong> Slash <strong>and<\/strong> Anthony Kiedis <strong>and<\/strong> John Frusciante.\u201d Knowing the context of these pairings would help resolve the ambiguity, but if you were reading a list of unknown mixed single and paired items, you wouldn\u2019t know which was a single and which was a pair near the end without the Oxford comma. A list such as \u201cA, B and C, D, E and F, G, H, I, J and K and L\u201d would be ambiguous because you wouldn\u2019t know if the last three items paired J with K (and L is single) or K with L (and J is single).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIf the Oxford comma is necessary to avoid ambiguity in such cases, it should be used as a rule in <em>all<\/em> cases. Writers shouldn\u2019t have to make a subjective judgment call about whether the reader would find it ambiguous with or without the Oxford comma because some readers are more astute than others. Except perhaps in titles where brevity is highly valued and no ambiguities of the kind listed above can confuse the reader, the Oxford comma should <em>always<\/em> be used.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for list of three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence. If you don\u2019t see a comma before the <em>and<\/em> that separates the last two items, add one there.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Our group is full of non-contributors, my friend and me.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Our group is full of non-contributors<span style=\"color: #000080\"><strong>,<\/strong><\/span> my friend<strong><span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span> and<\/strong> me.<\/em><\/p>\r\nOmitting the Oxford comma in the incorrect example above suggests that you and your friend are non-contributors because \u201cmy friend and me\u201d are in appositive relation to \u201cnon-contributors.\u201d Though you did not mean to say this, you are in effect offering yourself and your friend as particular examples of non-contributors. By adding the Oxford comma, however, you now say that the group is comprised of you, your friend, and some non-contributors. With the Oxford comma, you and your friend are productive members rather than non-contributors despite being grouped with them.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#531\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cr42\"><\/a>Comma Rule 4.2: Put commas between two or more coordinate adjectives.<\/h3>\r\nPut commas between two or more coordinate adjectives that refer to the same noun. <strong>Coordinate adjectives<\/strong> are those stacked in front of a noun in no particular order to describe the noun in multiple ways. You can tell that they\u2019re coordinate adjectives if you can (1) change their order and (2) add <em>and<\/em> between each without changing the meaning either way.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The new hires turned out to be dedicated<strong>,<\/strong> ambitious employees.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> Both adjectives, \u201cdedicated\u201d and \u201cambitious,\u201d describe the noun \u201cemployees\u201d in no particular order, and you can replace the comma with an and to make \u201c. . . dedicated and ambitious employees.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Would you like a nice<strong>,<\/strong> new<strong>,<\/strong> clean<strong>,<\/strong> dry diaper?<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> All four coordinate adjectives describe the noun \u201cdiaper\u201d in no particular order.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The incessant, thunderous drum beat changed the rhythm of their hearts.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma goes between \u201cincessant\u201d and \u201cthunderous\u201d because they are coordinate. The comma doesn\u2019t go between \u201cthunderous\u201d and \u201cdrum\u201d because they are non-coordinate in that you can\u2019t change their order and add and between them without changing the meaning.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Use SMS for brief<strong>,<\/strong> fast text message exchanges.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma goes between \u201cbrief\u201d and \u201cfast\u201d because they are coordinate. The comma doesn\u2019t go after \u201cfast,\u201d \u201ctext,\u201d or \u201cmessage\u201d because they are non-coordinate in that you can\u2019t change their order and add<em> and<\/em> between them without changing the meaning.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe commas distinguish coordinate from non-coordinate adjectives, and therefore what adjectives are incidental and which are intrinsic qualities of the noun they describe. For more, see <a href=\"http:\/\/www.write.com\/writing-guides\/general-writing\/punctuation\/mastering-the-art-of-comma-usage\/commas-coordinate-adjectives\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Commas: Coordinate Adjectives<\/a> (Write, 2012) and <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/handouts\/commatip06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Comma Tip 6: Use Commas Correctly with a Series of Adjectives<\/a> (Simmons, 2018a).\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for a series of two or more adjectives preceding a noun without commas between them. If you can put and between them <em>and<\/em> change their order without changing the meaning of the sentence, they\u2019re coordinate adjectives that need commas between them.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The day started off with a vicious unrelenting freezing rain.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The day started off with a vicious, unrelenting freezing rain.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe only adjectives that could be swapped around and have <em>and<\/em> added between them are \u201cvicious\u201d and \u201cunrelenting.\u201d The adjective \u201cfreezing\u201d is locked in its position before the noun \u201crain\u201d to mean the type of rain that makes the outside one huge ice rink. Therefore, you need to add a comma between \u201cvicious\u201d and \u201cunrelenting,\u201d but not between \u201cunrelenting\u201d and \u201cfreezing.\u201d\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#531\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cr43\"><\/a>Comma Rule 4.3: Don\u2019t put a comma after the final coordinate adjective.<\/h3>\r\nDon\u2019t put a comma after the second of two (or third of three, etc.) coordinate adjectives\u2014i.e., between the final coordinate adjective and the noun it describes. See <a href=\"#cr42\">Comma Rule 4.2<\/a> above for a further explanation of coordinate <em>vs.<\/em> non-coordinate adjectives.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for coordinate adjectives preceding a noun with commas between them. If you can put <em>and<\/em> between them and change their order without changing the meaning of the sentence, they\u2019re coordinate adjectives that need commas between them.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Select and use common, basic, information technology tools to support communication.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Select and use common, basic information technology tools to support communication.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe only adjectives that could be swapped around and have and added between them are \u201ccommon\u201d and \u201cbasic.\u201d In this case, \u201cinformation technology\u201d (a.k.a. \u201cIT\u201d) is a noun phrase that modifies the noun \u201ctools,\u201d so their order is locked in, making them non-coordinate.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#531\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cr44\"><\/a>Comma Rule 4.4: Don\u2019t put a comma between non-coordinate adjectives.<\/h3>\r\nDon\u2019t put commas between non-coordinate adjectives\u2014that is, between adjectives that are in a fixed order before the noun they modify and cannot have <em>and<\/em> added between them without changing the meaning of the sentence. See <a href=\"#cr42\">Comma Rule 4.2<\/a> above for a further explanation of coordinate vs. non-coordinate adjectives.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for coordinate adjectives preceding a noun with commas between them. If you can\u2019t put<em> and<\/em> between them and change their order without changing the meaning of the sentence, they\u2019re non-coordinate adjectives. Any commas between them must be deleted.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Send the black<span style=\"color: #993300\"><strong>,<\/strong><\/span> Pearl<span style=\"color: #993300\"><strong>,<\/strong><\/span> drum kit to the heavy<span style=\"color: #993300\"><strong>,<\/strong> <\/span>metal drummer.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Send the black Pearl drum kit to the heavy metal drummer.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe order is important in the first set of non-coordinate adjectives describing the noun \u201ckit\u201d because the type of kit we\u2019re dealing with is a drum kit, so \u201cdrum\u201d must come immediately before \u201ckit.\u201d The brand of drum kit is Pearl (capitalized because it is a proper noun), so \u201cPearl\u201d precedes \u201cdrum kit.\u201d The only adjective preceding these non-coordinate adjectives is \u201cblack,\u201d but it is unaccompanied by another to make it a coordinate adjective, so there are no commas. Likewise, inserting a comma between \u201cheavy\u201d and \u201cmetal\u201d splits the musical genre \u201cheavy metal\u201d serving as a non-coordinate adjective to \u201cdrummer,\u201d so it misleadingly implies that the drummer is a 400kg led statue.\r\n<h3><a id=\"cr45\"><\/a>Comma Rule 4.5:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Don\u2019t put commas between two coordinate nouns or verbs.<\/h3>\r\nDon\u2019t put commas between two nouns (or noun phrases) or verbs (or verb phrases) joined by the coordinating conjunction <em>and<\/em> in a compound subject, predicate, or object.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for commas appearing before or after the coordinating conjunction <em>and<\/em> when it comes between nouns (or noun phrases) or verbs (or verb phrases), then delete them.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The communications director from your company<span style=\"color: #993300\"><strong>,<\/strong><\/span> <strong>and<\/strong> the same from our company met to discuss a common strategy.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The Fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The communications director from your company, <strong>and<\/strong> the same from our company met to discuss a common strategy.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThis above sentence features a <strong>compound subject<\/strong>, meaning that two subjects (the two communications directors) perform the main action (\u201cmet\u201d). Though each is followed by a prepositional phrase (\u201cfrom . . .\u201d), the comma between them must be deleted in the incorrect sentence to avoid impeding the reader.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>They applied for an extension<span style=\"color: #993300\"><strong>,<\/strong><\/span> <strong>and<\/strong> worked all weekend on the report.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>They applied for an extension <strong>and<\/strong> worked all weekend on the report.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe sentence above has a <strong>compound predicate<\/strong>, meaning that the one subject (\u201cThey\u201d) performed two actions (\u201capplied\u201d and \u201cworked\u201d). Again, the comma is unnecessary between them and must be deleted from the incorrect sentence. The comma would be necessary if the second verb had a different subject performing the action, in which case they would be two independent clauses in a compound sentence (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#t432b\">Table 4.3.2b<\/a> and <a href=\"#cr11\">Comma Rule 1.1<\/a>).\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>They can\u2019t expect us to write both the report and memo<span style=\"color: #993300\"><strong>,<\/strong><\/span> <strong>and<\/strong> not pay us.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>They can\u2019t expect us to write both the report and memo <strong>but<\/strong> not pay us.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe above sentence also has a <strong>compound predicate<\/strong> (\u201ccan\u2019t expect\u201d and \u201cnot pay\u201d). Adding a comma makes this out to be a compound sentence, which it isn\u2019t because the subject \u201cThey\u201d is common to both actions. To avoid an \u201cX and Y and Z\u201d structure caused by having a compound object (\u201creport and memo\u201d) appearing just before the conjunction coordinating the second verb, the \u201cand\u201d joining the two verb phrases can simply be changed to \u201cbut.\u201d\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The teacher gave us a new deadline based on the revised schedule<strong><span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span> and<\/strong> a slightly revised end-of-semester timeline.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The teacher gave us a new deadline based on the revised schedule <strong>and<\/strong> a slightly revised end-of-semester timeline.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe above sentences have a <strong>compound object<\/strong>, meaning that two objects (\u201cdeadline\u201d and \u201ctimeline\u201d) are acted upon by the verb \u201cgave.\u201d The objects here are in somewhat long noun phrases, but to add a comma between them (after \u201dschedule\u201d) would mislead the reader into thinking that this is a compound sentence with a new independent clause following \u201cand.\u201d Deleting the comma would ensure that the reader understands the sentence instead as a simple sentence with a compound object.\r\n\r\n<a href=\"#531\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Commas<\/strong><\/a>\r\n\r\nFor more on commas, see the following resources:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=898\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Guide to Grammar and Writing\u2019s Commas page<\/a>, which includes a Comma Usage PowerPoint presentation and a <a href=\"http:\/\/www.dactivity.com\/activity\/index.aspx?content=2hG0rTLT2r\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Commas exercise<\/a> (click on the image to the right; Darling, 2014e)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Purdue OWL\u2019s <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/607\/02\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Extended Rules for Using Commas<\/a> (Driscoll &amp; Brizee, 2018) along with its <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/exercises\/3\/5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Punctuation Exercises: Commas<\/a> (Purdue OWL, 2010).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/comma.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Punctuation Guide\u2019s Comma page<\/a> (Penn, 2011a)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/commas.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Grammar Book\u2019s Commas page<\/a> and its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/commas_1.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Commas Quiz 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/commas_2.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Commas Quiz 2<\/a> (Straus, 2018a)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<a href=\"#menu\">Return to the <strong>Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/strong><\/a>\r\n<h1><a id=\"532\"><\/a>5.3.2: Apostrophes<\/h1>\r\nApostrophes are mainly used to indicate possession and contraction but are probably the most misplaced punctuation mark after commas. They can embarrass the writer who misuses them, show a lack of attention to detail, and confuse readers about whether a noun is singular or plural, possessive, a contraction, or just a misspelling. Used properly, apostrophes at the end of a noun cue readers that the noun following is possessed by what the noun preceding refers to. For instance, in \"Uncle Tom's cabin,\" the apostrophe indicates that the cabin (noun) is owned by Uncle Tom. Placement of apostrophes before or after the\u00a0<em>s<\/em> ending a word determines if the noun is plural or singular. They're also used for contractions in informal writing such as you see at the beginning of this sentence. You have four main rules to follow when using apostrophes, as well as several special cases.<b><\/b>\r\n<h2>Quick Rules: Apostrophes<b><\/b><\/h2>\r\nClick on the rules below to see further explanations, examples, advice on what to look for when proofreading, and demonstrations of how to correct common apostrophe errors associated with each one.\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#ar11\">Apostrophe Rule 1.1<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put an apostrophe before the <em>s<\/em> ending a singular possessive noun.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em><strong>Jenna\u2019s goal<\/strong> is to find a money manager who can diversify her portfolio.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#ar12\">Apostrophe Rule 1.2<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong><a id=\"ar11\"><\/a>Don\u2019t put an apostrophe at the end of a simple plural noun.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>Corben put on his glasses to see the looks on their faces.\u00a0<\/em>(no apostrophe at the end of \u201cglasses,\u201d \u201clooks,\u201d or \"faces\").<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#ar21\">Apostrophe Rule 2.1<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put an apostrophe after the <em>s<\/em> ending a plural possessive noun.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>All three <strong>companies\u2019<\/strong> bids for the contract were rejected.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#ar22\">Apostrophe Rule 2.2<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Don\u2019t put an apostrophe before the <em>s<\/em> ending a non-possessive plural decade.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>The corporation was in the black back in the <strong>1940s<\/strong>.<\/em> (no apostrophe between the <em>0<\/em> and <em>s<\/em> in \u201c1940s\u201d)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#ar3\">Apostrophe Rule 3<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put an apostrophe where letters are omitted in contractions.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em><strong>You\u2019re<\/strong> saying that <strong>it\u2019s<\/strong> not a mistake if <strong>they\u2019re<\/strong> doing it twice?<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#ar4\">Apostrophe Rule 4<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put an apostrophe before a plural s following single letters<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>Mind your <strong>p\u2019s<\/strong> and <strong>q\u2019s<\/strong>, son.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2>Extended Explanations<\/h2>\r\n<h3><a id=\"ar11\"><\/a>Apostrophe Rule 1.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put an apostrophe before the <em>s<\/em> ending a singular possessive noun.<\/h3>\r\nPut an apostrophe before the <em>s<\/em> added to the end of a singular noun when the noun or noun phrase following belongs to the noun preceding it. In the case of joint ownership in compound nouns (when two or more nouns have joint possession of the noun following), the apostrophe-<em>s<\/em> goes only at the end of the second or final noun.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Have you heard the story of Albert <strong>Einstein\u2019s<\/strong> brain?<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The brain belongs to Einstein (singular), so the apostrophe and s indicate possession.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Grace <strong>Jones\u2019s<\/strong> formidable presence in <strong>1985\u2019s<\/strong> A View to a Kill electrified audiences.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The \u201cformidable presence\u201d belongs to Grace Jones. Though her name ends with an <em>s<\/em>, she is grammatically singular and therefore receives an apostrophe and <em>s<\/em> just like any other singular noun. The apostrophe and <em>s<\/em> are also added to the end of years to indicate that the noun following (in this case a James Bond film) occurred in that year.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I\u2019ve always heeded my <strong>brother-in-law\u2019s<\/strong> financial advice.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophe and s are added to the end of a compound noun.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Reznor and Ross\u2019s<\/strong> first soundtrack won a 2010 Oscar for Best Original Score.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophe and <em>s<\/em> are added to the end of the final noun in cases of joint possession. Saying \u201cReznor\u2019s and Ross\u2019s first soundtrack\u201d would refer to solo soundtracks by each.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe apostrophe before the s signals to the reader that the preceding singular noun is in possession of the noun or noun phrase following. To test whether you are dealing with a case of possession, you can flip the order and insert \u201cof the\u201d between the nouns or noun phrases. In the first example above where the brain belongs to Einstein, for instance, \u201cthe brain of Einstein\u201d is a wordier equivalent of \u201cEinstein\u2019s brain\u201d but confirms possession.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for <em>s<\/em> added to the end of words when your intention is to show possession, but you\u2019ve omitted the apostrophe, making the word look like a simple plural. Add the apostrophe. Also, in cases where an apostrophe is added to the very end of a singular noun that ends in s to show possession (see the second correct example above), add another s rather than imply that the singular noun is plural.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Mr. <strong>Davis\u2019 companies proposals<\/strong> request is for a 33% funding increase.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Mr. <strong>Davis\u2019s company\u2019s proposal\u2019s<\/strong> request is for a 33% funding increase.<\/p>\r\nThe incorrect sentence above contains three apostrophe errors:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The company belongs to Mr. Davis, who is just one person and is therefore grammatically singular despite having a name ending in <em>s<\/em>. Perhaps the writer heard that you can\u2019t have an \u201cs\u2019s\u201d due to pronunciation concerns, but usually we pronounce this <em>Day-viss-ez<\/em> to indicate possession. Thrown by this and confusing the singular and plural possessive forms, the writer who omits the s and may cause the same confusion can avoid doing so by adding it.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The proposal belongs to the company, but the apostrophe is omitted and the plural form of company (\u201ccompanies\u201d) is given instead of \u201ccompany\u2019s.\u201d The error is likely due to the fact that the plural noun and singular possessive noun forms are <strong>homophones<\/strong>\u2014they sound exactly alike but are spelled differently and mean different things (see <a href=\"http:\/\/www.homophone.com\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">homophone.com<\/a> for several examples of such homophones). Correcting this is a simple matter of replacing \u201cies\u201d with \u201cy\u2019s\u201d at the end of the word.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Finally, the request is in the proposal and thus belongs to it. Omitting the apostrophe makes the plural noun \u201cproposals,\u201d and fixing it is just a matter of adding the apostrophe before the final <em>s<\/em>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#532\">Return to Quick Rules: Apostrophes<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"ar21\"><\/a>Apostrophe Rule 2.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put an apostrophe after the s ending a plural possessive noun.<\/h3>\r\nPut an apostrophe after the s at the end of a plural noun (a noun of two or more people, places, or things) when the noun or noun phrase following belongs to it.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The two <strong>companies\u2019<\/strong> merger was finalized last month.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophe goes at the end of the plural noun \u201ccompanies\u201d to indicate that the noun following (\u201cmerger\u201d) belonged to both.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The<strong> Joneses\u2019<\/strong> family tradition includes rescuing ancient artifacts from dastardly villains.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophe is added to the end of \u201cJoneses,\u201d the plural of the surname \u201cJones,\u201d meaning each individual Jones family member is in joint possession of the noun phrase following (\u201cfamily tradition\u201d).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I listed having had three <strong>years\u2019<\/strong> experience in C++ coding on my r\u00e9sum\u00e9.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophe comes at the end of the plural \u201cyears\u201d to indicate that the noun following happened in those years. This is a more concise alternative to saying \u201cthree years of experience.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Exception:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">When the plural form of the noun is irregular in that it doesn\u2019t end in <em>s<\/em> (e.g., \u201cfeet,\u201d \u201cchildren,\u201d \u201cmen,\u201d \u201cmice,\u201d \u201cteeth\u201d), use the singular possessive apostrophe-s.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Can you please point me to the<strong> men\u2019s<\/strong> room?<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The singular possessive apostrophe-s form is added to the end of an irregular plural noun that doesn\u2019t end in s to indicate possession.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe apostrophe after the s tells the reader to read the noun as being a plural in possession of the noun or noun phrase following, as opposed to the apostrophe before the s signalling a singular possessive.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for plural words that end in s being in possession of the noun following without an apostrophe at the end, or the apostrophe added before the s. Either add the apostrophe to the end of the word or move the it there.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We\u2019ve been granted two <strong>months<\/strong> grace.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We\u2019ve been granted two <strong>month\u2019s<\/strong> grace.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We\u2019ve been granted two <strong>months\u2019<\/strong> grace.<\/em><\/p>\r\nHere, the grace period belongs to the two months (plural), so omitting the apostrophe is incorrect because it leaves \u201cmonths\u201d as a simple plural. The apostrophe-s ending is also incorrect because it makes \u201cmonth\u201d singular, which disagrees with the \u201ctwo\u201d preceding. To correct these errors, the apostrophe must go after the<em> s<\/em> at the end of \u201cmonths.\u201d\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#532\">Return to Quick Rules: Apostrophes<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"ar22\"><\/a>Apostrophe Rule 2.2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Don\u2019t put an apostrophe before the s ending a non-possessive plural decade<\/h3>\r\nDon\u2019t put an apostrophe between the<em> 0<\/em> and <em>s<\/em> when writing a plural decade that\u2019s not possessive (e.g., 1990s). Put an apostrophe at the end only if the decade is in possession of the noun or noun phrase following.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The <strong>1980s\u2019<\/strong> main contribution to popular music was excessive cheesy synthesizers.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophe follows the plural decade, (meaning everything that happened from January 1, 1981, to December 31<sup>st<\/sup>, 1990) to show possession of the noun phrase \u201cmain contribution.\u201d You could also say, \u201cThe main contribution of the 1980s to popular music was . . . .\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>1980\u2019s<\/strong> Academy Award for Best Picture went to Ordinary People.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophe precedes the s to mean that the event following happened in the year 1980.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader:<\/h4>\r\nThe apostrophe after the s signals to the reader that the noun or noun phrase following happened in the decade given. Some mistakenly put an apostrophe between the <em>0<\/em> and <em>s<\/em> when referring to the simple plural of a decade (e.g., 1990\u2019s), but this conflicts with the singular possessive form of the year (see the \u201c1980\u2019s\u201d example above). If the decade were also possessive, \u201c1990\u2019s\u2019\u201d (with two apostrophes\u2014one before and one after the s) would look awkward. The non-possessive apostrophe between the <em>0<\/em> and <em>s<\/em> is probably confusing the rule that places the contraction apostrophe before the last two digits of the year or decade (see the third example in <a href=\"#ar3\">Apostrophe Rule 3<\/a> below).\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for an apostrophe-s added to the end of a decade and delete the apostrophe if the decade (or year at the beginning of the decade) isn\u2019t in possession of the following noun or noun phrase.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The <strong>1990\u2019s<\/strong> were a colourful decade in men\u2019s fashion.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The <strong>1990s<\/strong> were a colourful decade in men\u2019s fashion.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The <strong>\u201990s<\/strong> were a colourful decade in men\u2019s fashion.<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the incorrect sentence above, \u201c1990\u2019s\u201d is the singular possessive form of \u201c1990,\u201d meaning something belonging to the year 1990 should follow it rather than a verb. Perhaps the writer confused \u201c1990\u2019s\u201d with the contraction \u201c \u201990s.\u201d The apostrophe before the s must be deleted to make the simple plural \u201c1990s,\u201d meaning all the years from 1991 to 2000 inclusive.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#532\">Return to Quick Rules: Apostrophes<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"ar3\"><\/a>Apostrophe Rule 3:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put an apostrophe where letters are omitted in contractions.<\/h3>\r\nPut an apostrophe wherever letters and characters (including spaces) have been omitted in contractions. <strong>Contractions<\/strong> are two (sometimes more) words combined into one word to represent the way they\u2019re often said quickly as one word in informal speech. In the examples below, the contractions would be incorrect if formal writing were expected by the audience but are correct as informal writing.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>There\u2019s<\/strong> going to be a huge reckoning when markets adjust, and it <strong>won\u2019t<\/strong> be pretty.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The first apostrophes replace the omitted<em> i<\/em> in \u201cThere is\u201d and the second for the <em>o<\/em> in \u201cwill not\u201d)<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I <strong>woudn\u2019t\u2019ve<\/strong> have said that if I knew you were sensitive about your nose.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophes replace the omitted <em>o<\/em> and<em> a<\/em> in the three-word phrase \u201cwould not have\u201d contracted into one word.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>She\u2019s<\/strong> been <strong>bangin\u2019<\/strong> out hit records since the \u201970s<\/em>.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophes replace the omitted space and <em>ha <\/em>in \u201cShe has,\u201d final <em>g<\/em> in \u201cbanging,\u201d and 19 in \u201c1970s.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>It\u2019s<\/strong> a pretty bad cold, sure, but <strong>\u2019sbeen<\/strong> <strong>a while<\/strong> and <strong>\u2019tis<\/strong> the season, as they say.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophes replace the omitted space and<em> i<\/em> in the contraction for \u201cIt is,\u201d<em> it ha<\/em> in \u201cit has been,\u201d and first<em> i<\/em> in \u201cit is.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Exceptions:<\/strong> Many contractions at the far end of informality typically omit even contractions.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>I\u2019m gonna<\/strong> get me a cold beer when this <strong>shift\u2019s<\/strong> over.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The first apostrophe replaces the omitted space and a in \u201cI am,\u201d and the second replaces the space and <em>i<\/em> in \u201cshift is.\u201d As a convention in the writing of <em>gonna<\/em> as a contraction of \u201cgoing to,\u201d apostrophes aren\u2019t used to replace the omitted <em>i, g, t,<\/em> and <em>o<\/em>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe apostrophe replaces omitted letters in contractions and thus signals informal writing meant to represent the way we speak words informally, though they would be unacceptable in formal writing. Some common contractions that often confuse readers because they are homophones with other words include:\r\n<h5>Table 5.3.2: Commonly Confused or Misspelled Contractions<\/h5>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 25%\">Contraction<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 25%\">Meaning<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 25%\">Not<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 25%\">Meaning<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">can\u2019t<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">cannot<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">cant<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">slang<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">could\u2019ve<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">could have<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">could of<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">(\u201cof\u201d confused with \u201chave\u201d)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">I\u2019d<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">I would<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">Id<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">agent of instinct to Freud<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">I\u2019m<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">I am<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">Im<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">Cockney for \u201chim\u201d<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">it\u2019s<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">it is<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">its<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">possessive pronoun<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">I\u2019ve<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">I have<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">Ive<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">(misspelled)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">let\u2019s<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">let us<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">lets<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">a form of the verb <em>to let<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">o\u2019clock<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">of the clock<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">oclock<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">(misspelled)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">should\u2019ve<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">should have<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">should of<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">(\u201cof\u201d confused with \u201chave\u201d)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">there\u2019s<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">there is \/ was<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">theirs<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">possessive pronoun<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">they\u2019re<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">they are<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">there \/ their<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">pronoun \/ possessive pron.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">we\u2019re<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">we are \/ were<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">were<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">a form of the verb <em>to be<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">where\u2019s<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">where is \/ was<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">wears<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">a form of the verb <em>to wear<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">who\u2019s<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">who is \/ was<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">whose<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">possessive pronoun<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">who\u2019re<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">who are \/ were<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">whore<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">prostitute<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">would\u2019ve<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">would have<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">would of<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">(\u201cof\u201d confused with \u201chave\u201d)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">you\u2019re<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">you are \/ were<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">your<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">possessive pronoun<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nFor a more exhaustive set, see the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:List_of_English_contractions\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">List of English contractions<\/a> (Wikipedia, 2018).\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for the absence of apostrophes in contractions and add them. Your spellchecker will help catch these in most cases (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/5-1-substantial-revisions#5148\/\">Figure 5.1.4.8<\/a> above), but you must be especially careful in seeking them out if your spellchecker has any difficulty. Ensure also that you always use the form of apostrophe that looks like a small superscript \u201c9,\u201d not \u201c6\u201d (the opening of single quotation marks; see <a href=\"#qmr2\">Quotation Marks Rule 2<\/a>) especially when placed at the beginning of words or numbers.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Its<\/strong> not like <strong>there gone to<\/strong> kick us out if <strong>im<\/strong> late and <strong>your<\/strong> hammered.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>It\u2019s<\/strong> not like <strong>they\u2019re gonna<\/strong> kick me out if <strong>I\u2019m<\/strong> late and <strong>you\u2019re<\/strong> hammered.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe many errors in the incorrect sentence can be corrected in the following ways:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>It\u2019s<\/em> (for \u201cit is\u201d) is meant rather than the third-person possessive pronoun<em> Its<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>they\u2019re<\/em> (for \u201cthey are\u201d) is meant rather than the pronoun<em> there<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>gonna<\/em> (for \u201cgoing to\u201d) is meant rather than \u201cgone to,\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>I\u2019m<\/em> (for \u201cI am\u201d) is meant rather than \u201cim\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>you\u2019re<\/em> is meant rather than the possessive pronoun \u201cyour\u201d<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I <strong>cant<\/strong> imagine life without <strong>\u201870\u2019s<\/strong> rock<strong> \u2018n<\/strong> roll.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I <strong>can\u2019t<\/strong> imagine life without<strong> \u201970s<\/strong> rock <strong>n\u2019<\/strong> roll.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe errors in the incorrect sentence can be corrected in the following ways:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>can\u2019t<\/em> (for \u201ccannot\u201d) is meant rather than <em>cant<\/em>, meaning \u201cslang.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>\u201970s<\/em> (for <em>1970s<\/em> with the apostrophe like a superscript \u201c9\u201d) is meant rather than the opening single-quotation mark (like a superscript \u201c6\u201d); the trick to getting the correct direction of apostrophe is to type any letter first, then the apostrophe to orient it in the form appearing as a small superscript \u201c9,\u201d and then go back to delete the letter in front of it<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>n\u2019<\/em> (for \u201cand\u201d) is meant rather than the opening single-quotation mark (like a superscript \u201c6\u201d) appearing before the n; an apostrophe replacing the a, in addition to the one for <em>d<\/em>, is seen as excessive<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#532\">Return to Quick Rules: Apostrophes<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"ar4\"><\/a>Apostrophe Rule 4:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put an apostrophe before a plural s following single letters.<\/h3>\r\nPut an apostrophe wherever adding an s to make a simple plural would be confusing, such as pluralizing a single letter.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>As my mom always said, \u201cMind your <strong>p\u2019s<\/strong> and <strong>q\u2019s<\/strong>, dot your <strong>i\u2019s<\/strong>, and cross your<strong> t\u2019s<\/strong>.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophes help form the plurals of the lowercase letters when they would otherwise look confusing as \u201cps\u201d and \u201cqs,\u201d or ambiguous as \u201cis.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I\u2019m aiming for straight <strong>A\u2019s<\/strong> this semester.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophe helps form the plural of the uppercase letters when it would otherwise look ambiguous as \u201cAs.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe apostrophe helps the reader see these as plural forms of letters rather than as misspellings or typos.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nIn the rare case of using a plural form of a letter, separate the letter and its<em> s<\/em> with an apostrophe if you have omitted it.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You need to practice rolling your <strong>rs<\/strong> if you want to nail the Italian accent.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You need to practice rolling your <strong>r\u2019s<\/strong> if you want to nail the Italian accent.<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the example above, omitting the apostrophe makes the plural of the letter <em>r<\/em> appear as a typo.\r\n\r\n<a href=\"#532\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Apostrophes<\/strong><\/a>\r\n\r\nFor more on apostrophes, see the following resources:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=859\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Guide to Grammar and Writing\u2019s Apostrophes page<\/a> (Darling, 2014f)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/621\/01\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Purdue OWL\u2019s The Apostrophe<\/a> (2013) along with its <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/exercises\/3\/3\/10\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Exercise: Apostrophes<\/a> (n.d.)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/apostrophe.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Punctuation Guide\u2019s Apostrophe page<\/a> (Penn, 2011b)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/apostro.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Grammar Book\u2019s Apostrophes page<\/a> and its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/apostrophes_1.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Apostrophes Quiz 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/apostrophes_2.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Apostrophes Quiz 2<\/a> (Straus, 2014a)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<a href=\"#menu\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a>\r\n<h1><a id=\"533\"><\/a>5.3.3: Colons<\/h1>\r\n<img class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-94\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2018\/06\/colon-semi-300x163.png\" alt=\"Colon and semicolon\" width=\"300\" height=\"163\" \/>Colons and semicolons are often confused because of the similarities in both their names and form, though they perform quite different punctuation roles. A colon looks like a period stacked on top of another and is mainly used to equate information on either side of it somewhat like an equals sign (=) in math. A semicolon, on the other hand, looks like a period stacked on top of a comma. The semicolon usually separates independent clauses from one another in a compound sentence as an alternative to using a comma and a conjunction. They both have additional specific uses as we shall see below, starting with the colon.<b><\/b>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2>Quick Rules: Colons<b><\/b><\/h2>\r\nClick on the rules below to see further explanations, examples, advice on what to look for when proofreading, and demonstrations of how to correct common colon errors associated with each one.\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;height: 296px;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cor11\">Colon Rule 1.1<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a colon at the end of a clause or phrase introducing a list.<\/strong>\r\n<em>NASA built six space shuttles: <\/em>Enterprise, Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cor12\">Colon Rule 1.2<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a colon at the end of an opening salutation in formal emails and letters.<\/strong>\r\n<em>Dear Ms. O\u2019Reilly:<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cor21\">Colon Rule 2.1<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a colon between an explanation and its introductory independent clause.<\/strong>\r\n<em>The error in our prototype led to the solution of quite another problem: how to stabilize the transducer.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cor22\">Colon Rule 2.2<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a colon between a quotation and its introductory independent clause if the latter is a complete sentence.<\/strong>\r\n<em>What they were actually saying was much simpler: \u201cEither give us the money up front, or we won\u2019t install the program.\u201d<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cor23\">Colon Rule 2.3<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Don\u2019t put a colon before a list or explanation preceded by a fragment.<\/strong>\r\n<em>Their three best albums are<\/em> Fully Completely<em>,<\/em> Day for Night<em>, and<\/em> Trouble at the Henhouse<em>. <\/em>(no colon after \u201care\u201d)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cor31\">Colon Rule 3.1<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a colon between a main title and its subtitle.<\/strong>\r\n<em>In the Realm of Hungry Ghosts: Close Encounters with Addiction<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cor32\">Colon Rule 3.2<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a colon between publisher locations and names in bibliographical references.<\/strong>\r\n<em>Toronto: Nelson<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cor33\">Colon Rule 3.3<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a colon between numbers in ratios and times.<\/strong>\r\n<em>There\u2019s a 3:1 chance that the experiment will end before the 8:23:40 mark.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2>Extended Explanations<\/h2>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cor11\"><\/a>Colon Rule 1.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a colon at the end of a clause or phrase introducing a list.<\/h3>\r\nPut colon after a clause or phrase that introduces a list formatted either as a series separated by commas in the sentence or a bulleted or numbered stack down the page.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We\u2019re going to need some branded stationery: business cards for all associates, letterhead and memo templates, post-it notes, pens, and USB sticks.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The colon ends an independent clause (complete with a subject and predicate) that introduces a list arranged within the sentence.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>To find the date of a webpage that doesn\u2019t otherwise have one:<\/em><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><em>Type \u201cinurl:\u201d into the Google Search field, then copy and paste the URL of the webpage whose date you\u2019re looking for immediately after it<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Hit Enter and add \u201c&amp;as_qdr=y15\u201d to the end of the search result URL in the address bar above the results page, which should show the title of the webpage whose date you\u2019re looking for, but without the date yet<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Hit Enter again and you\u2019ll see the date appear in grey font below the webpage title in the updated results list<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The colon ends an infinitive phrase that, as a dependent clause, is completed by each imperative sentence in the numbered list of procedural steps arranged down the page.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe colon cues the reader to read the information following as a list of items in parallel delivering on the promise made in the clause or phrase preceding it.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for lists either in sentence form with each item separated by a comma or in the form of a numbered or bulleted list. If no colons separate the introductory clauses or phrases from the lists that follow, add them. If semicolons or commas introduce the lists (see <a href=\"#sc3\">Semicolon Rule 3<\/a> below), replace them with colons.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Four obstacles infuriate me on my rush to class through the hallways; inattentive people texting while walking, slow walkers, people who stop suddenly as if there\u2019s no one behind them, and 4-5 people walking side-by-side, taking up the whole hallway.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Four obstacles infuriate me on my rush to class through the hallways: inattentive people texting while walking, slow walkers, people who stop suddenly as if there\u2019s no one behind them, and 4-5 people walking side-by-side, taking up the whole hallway.<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the example above, the writer made the common mistake of confusing a semicolon for a colon. Fixing it is a simple matter of replacing one with the other. See the example correct sentence for <a href=\"#cor21\">Colon Rule 2.1<\/a> below for a handy mnemonic for getting the right punctuation in these cases.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#533\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Colons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cor12\"><\/a>Colon Rule 1.2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a colon at the end of an opening salutation in formal emails and letters.<\/h3>\r\nPut a colon at the end of the opening salutation line where you address the recipient by name at the opening of a formal email or letter. In a semiformal email, a comma at the end of the salutation is fine. If an email is formal, however, a comma follows the greeting word (e.g., <em>Hello<\/em>) and the colon follows the recipient\u2019s name.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Greetings, Greta:<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The colon following the semiformal email\u2019s opening salutation cues the recipient (Greta) to read the message following it.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Dear Mrs. Jackson:<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The colon following the formal letter\u2019s opening salutation cues the recipient (Mrs. Jackson) to read the message following it.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Exception:<\/strong> In an informal message, a comma following the recipient\u2019s name (but not the greeting word) strikes a more casual tone in the opening salutation.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Hi Hank,<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma following the informal message\u2019s opening salutation cues the recipient (Hank) to read the message following it.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe colon cues the reader to read the message following the salutation that addresses them by name.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for either no punctuation used at the end of an opening salutation address or other punctuation inappropriate for the occasion, such as a comma in a letter\u2019s salutation, or incorrect, such as a semicolon.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Dear Mr. Bobrovsky,<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Dear Mr. Bobrovsky;<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Dear Mr. Bobrovsky:<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the first incorrect example, a comma used at the end of an opening salutation addressing the reader in a letter is too informal for the given channel. This suggests to the professional reader that the writer isn\u2019t up to date on business letter writing conventions. Modern business writers use a colon instead of a comma. Worse, the semicolon suggests that the writer is confused about the respective roles of colons and semicolons despite having had ample opportunity to learn them throughout their Enlgish-speaking lives.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#533\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Colons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cor21\"><\/a>Colon Rule 2.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a colon between an explanation and its introductory independent clause.<\/h3>\r\nPut colon after an independent clause followed by a statement that explains in further detail what the introductory clause states in general. An independent clause is one that can stand on its own as a sentence beginning with a capital and ending with a period because it expresses a complete thought with a subject (doer) and a predicate (action; see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#431\/\">\u00a74.3.1<\/a> above). This colon usually stands for the causal transition phrase \u201c\u2014that is, . . . .\u201d\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Imagining the colon elongating into an equals sign (=) is a useful way to remember what it does: equate information on either side of it.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The independent clause ends with a colon and the verb phrase following explains what \u201cdoes\u201d means. Since the material to the right of the colon is a verb phrase rather than a complete sentence, the e in \u201cequate\u201d remains lowercase.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe colon cues the reader to read the phrase or clause to the right of the colon as an explanation of what the clause to the left of it says.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for combination statement-explanation sentence structures with either no punctuation between them or the wrong punctuation such as a semicolon, comma, or long dash (em dash).\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You have only one option left\u2014delete the corrupted file from your hard drive and download the last version you saved to the cloud.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You have only one option left: delete the corrupted file from your hard drive and download the last version you saved to the cloud.<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the incorrect sentence above, the writer made the common mistake of using the long dash as multipurpose punctuation for any pause you hear in speech. Fixing the sentence is a simple matter of replacing the long dash with a colon. You could alternatively add \u201cthat is, \u201d between the long dash and \u201cdelete,\u201d but the colon makes for a more concise sentence with two fewer words.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#533\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Colons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cor22\"><\/a>Colon Rule 2.2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a colon between a quotation and its introductory independent clause if the latter is a complete sentence.<\/h3>\r\nPut a colon after an independent clause that introduces a quotation. Like the clause followed by an explanation in <a href=\"#cor21\">Colon Rule 2.1<\/a> above, it must be a complete clause that can stand on its own before the colon and quotation.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The first joke he told was a groaner of the highest order: \u201cWhat did the fish say when you put him in his tank? . . . \u2018Hey, how do you drive this thing?\u2019\u201d<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The quotation is introduced by an independent clause that ends with a colon, whereas a signal phrase that ends with a verb such as \u201csaid\u201d is followed by a comma.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe colon cues the reader to read the quotation to the right of the colon.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for quotations preceded by a complete independent clause. If they don\u2019t have a colon separating them from the quotation, add one. Also, look for colons used to set up quotations when a comma is more appropriate, such as if the last word before the quotation is a verb, which would make the clause preceding the colon incomplete. In such cases, you would either replace the colon with a comma or rephrase the introductory fragment to make it an independent clause.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Mama called the doctor and the doctor said: \u201cNo more monkeys jumping on the bed.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Mama called the doctor and the doctor said, \u201cNo more monkeys jumping on the bed.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Mama called the doctor and the doctor gave her an ultimatum: \u201cLook, if another one of your children falls off the bed and gets a concussion, I\u2019ll be reporting you to the Children\u2019s Aid Society.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the example above, the clause preceding the colon and quotation is a compound with a fragmentary second clause missing an object after the transitive verb \u201csaid,\u201d whereas it would have to be a complete independent clause to use a colon. Correcting it would be a simple matter of replacing the colon with a comma (see <a href=\"#cr35\">Comma Rule 3.5<\/a> above). Alternatively, you could make the introductory clause a complete and independent one, meaning it could stand on its own as a sentence, then use a colon before the quotation.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#533\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Colons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cor23\"><\/a>Colon Rule 2.3:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Don\u2019t put a colon before an explanation or quotation preceded by a fragment.<\/h3>\r\nDon\u2019t put a colon before an explanation or list if the clause that precedes it is not an independent one\u2014that is, if it cannot stand on its own as a sentence.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for colons ending phrases or incomplete clauses with lists or explanatory statements following, and simply delete them or rephrase the incomplete clause as a complete one. The incorrect sentence at the end of <a href=\"#cor22\">Colon Rule 2.2<\/a> above exemplifies an incomplete clause preceding a quotation; below is one preceding a list:\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>The remaining tasks include:<\/strong> picking up the birthday cake, putting up the streamers, and wrapping the presents.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>The remaining tasks include<\/strong> picking up the birthday cake, putting up the streamers, and wrapping the presents.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>The following tasks remain:<\/strong> picking up the birthday cake, putting up the streamers, and wrapping the presents.<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the example above, the colon ends an incomplete clause\u2014incomplete because it has a subject and only half of the predicate. The verb \u201cinclude\u201d is <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/transitiveverb.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transitive<\/a>, which means that an object (a thing acted upon by the verb) must follow it (Simmons, 2007a). The objects here are <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/gerund.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">gerunds<\/a>, which are verbs in noun form ending in -ing (Simmons, 2018b) and are all on the other side of the colon, so the colon can just be deleted. Alternatively, the incomplete clause can be completed by changing the subject to \u201cThe following tasks\u201d to set up the list and changing the verb to the intransitive \u201cremain\u201d\u2014<a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/intransitiveverb.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">intransitive<\/a> because it <em>doesn\u2019t<\/em> take an object (Simmons, 2008).\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#533\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Colons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cor31\"><\/a>Colon Rule 3.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a colon between a main title and its subtitle.<b><\/b><\/h3>\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The colon separates main title from subtitle.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe colon distinguishes what should be known as the main title of the book, film, report, assignment, etc. Often this is a catchy, snappy handle for what to call it. The subtitle usually provides a little more practical information about what the work is about (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-6-effective-document-design#461\/\">\u00a74.6.1<\/a> above for more on titles).\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for titles that have any punctuation other than colons between main titles and subtitles. Often the cover of a book positions the subtitle below the main title and in a smaller font, in which case a colon must be added when transcribing the title into a document.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Amusing Ourselves to Death \/ Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the example above, the absence of punctuation separating the main title from the subtitle on the cover may have prompted the writer to make one up by using a slash. The convention for representing main titles and subtitles, however, is to separate them with a colon.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#533\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Colons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cor32\"><\/a>Colon Rule 3.2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a colon between publisher locations and names in bibliographical references.<\/h3>\r\nPut a colon between the location and company name of a publisher in APA References.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Toronto: ECW.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The colon separates location and publisher.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe colon is merely a convention for separating the publisher location and name. Readers like to know if the book is published in the major centres like New York or London, or if they\u2019re more local like Toronto or Vancouver.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for the part in bibliographical references of books where the publisher information is given. If any punctuation other than a colon separates them, replace it with a colon.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>New York, Random House.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>New York: Random House.<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the example above, the comma is non-standard punctuation separating the city where the book publisher is based and the name of the publisher. It must be replaced with a colon.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#533\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Colons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"cor33\"><\/a>Colon Rule 3.3:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a colon between numbers in ratios and times.<\/h3>\r\nPut a colon between numbers in mathematical ratios and to separate hours, minutes, and seconds when indicating time.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>A globe scaled 1:50,220,000 (or 790 miles to the inch) is one you can grip in the palm of your hand.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The ratio colon indicates the relative size difference between the model (given as 1 here) and the real thing, which in this case is over fifty million times bigger than the model.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Clocking in at 3:24:56, that film was three hours, twenty-four minutes, and fifty-six seconds too long.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The colons divide units of time into hours, minutes, and seconds. After seconds, decimal-periods are used for fractions of seconds.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe colon expresses mathematical relationships and the division of units between numbers in a space-efficient manner.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for ratios and times to ensure that a colon is being used and that there are no spaces between it and the numbers on either side.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>My first marathon time was 3: 22: 15 and my second was a slower 3.26.44.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>My first marathon time was 3:22:15 and my second was a slower 3:26:44.<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the example above, errors in spacing and using non-standard punctuation are easily corrected by deleting spaces between the numbers and colons in the first time written and using colons instead of periods in the second.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#533\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Colons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nFor more on colons, see the following resources:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=886\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Guide to Grammar and Writing\u2019s Colons page<\/a> along with its <a href=\"http:\/\/www.dactivity.com\/activity\/index.aspx?content=2ihf3ExmqU\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Semicolons, Colons, and Commas digital-activity exercises<\/a> at the bottom (Darling, 2014h) (Darling, 2014g)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/977\/04\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Purdue OWL\u2019s Punctuation\u2014Semicolons, Colons, and Parentheses page<\/a> (Cimisko, 2018)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/colon.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Punctuation Guide\u2019s Colon page<\/a> (Penn, 2011c)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/colons.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Grammar Book\u2019s Colons page<\/a> and its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/semicolons_and_colons_1.asp\">Semicolons and Colons Quiz 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/semicolons_and_colons_2.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Semicolons and Colons Quiz 2<\/a> at the bottom (Straus, 2015a)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h1><a id=\"534\"><\/a>5.3.4: Semicolons<b><\/b><\/h1>\r\n<img class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-95\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/semicolon-300x177.png\" alt=\"semicolon and colon\" width=\"300\" height=\"177\" \/>Semicolons and colons are often confused because of the similarities in both their names and form, though they perform quite different punctuation roles. A semicolon looks like a period stacked on top of a comma and is mainly used to separate independent clauses from one another in a compound sentence as an alternative to using a comma and a conjunction. A colon, on the other hand, looks like a period stacked atop another and is mainly used to equate information on either side of it somewhat like an equals sign (=) in math. They both have additional specific uses as we saw above with colons in <a href=\"#533\">\u00a75.3.3<\/a> above and will now see with semicolons.<b><\/b>\r\n<h2><\/h2>\r\n<h2>Quick Rules: Semicolons<b><\/b><\/h2>\r\nClick on the rules below to see further explanations, examples, advice on what to look for when proofreading, and demonstrations of how to correct common semicolon errors associated with each one.\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#scr1\">Semicolon Rule 1<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put a semicolon between related independent clauses to make a compound sentence.<\/strong>\r\n\r\nYes, we finished the marketing report you asked for; it\u2019s printed and bound in your departmental mailbox.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#scr2\">Semicolon Rule 2<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put a semicolon between sub-lists in a series of lists in a sentence.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>Italicize words, phrases, and clauses for emphasis or when you refer to them as such; the titles of books, albums, feature-length films, and websites; and ships, named aircraft, and other named vehicles.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#scr3\">Semicolon Rule 3<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Don\u2019t put a semicolon where a colon should be used.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>We can be thankful for what Oscar taught us: that being kind to our canine companions brings immense joy to our lives. (colon used after \u201cus\u201d to set up an explanation, not a semicolon)<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2>Extended Explanations<\/h2>\r\n<h3><a id=\"scr1\"><\/a>Semicolon Rule 1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a semicolon between related independent clauses to make a compound sentence.<\/h3>\r\nPut a semicolon between independent clauses whose content is so closely related that it makes sense to keep them in the same sentence, though they have different grammatical subjects (doers of the action). An independent clause is one that can stand on its own as a complete sentence because it has a subject (doer) and predicate (action) (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#431\/\">\u00a74.3.1<\/a>). A compound sentence joins two independent clauses either with a comma and coordinating conjunction (and, but, so, etc.; see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#t432a\/\">Table 4.3.2a<\/a>) or with a semicolon. Doing neither would make a run-on sentence, and using only a comma between the clauses would make a comma splice. Use a semicolon in compound sentences where none of the seven coordinating conjunctions is appropriate to use or where you need to be as concise as possible and can do without the conjunction without sacrificing clarity.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The new website is nearly ready to launch; we just need to set some SEO controls and publish it.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The semicolon joins the independent clause beginning with the subject \u201cThe new website\u201d and the other with the subject \u201cwe.\u201d Both could stand on their own as sentences but are closely related enough to be in the same sentence.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe semicolon helps the reader see where one clause ends and another (with a different grammatical subject) begins. It also signals that these are two closely related ideas worth joining in the same sentence.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for compound sentences punctuated with anything other than a semicolon (e.g., a comma, which makes a comma splice; see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/5-2-proofreading-for-grammar#5211\/\">\u00a75.2.1.1<\/a>) or with no punctuation at all between them (run-on sentences; see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/5-2-proofreading-for-grammar#5212\/\">\u00a75.2.1.2<\/a>). For this you really must know sentence structure well enough to spot the grammatical subject of a main (a.k.a. independent) clause so that you can tell if a second subject begins a new independent clause within a sentence but without the necessary punctuation preceding it. Review <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#431\/\">\u00a74.3.1<\/a> above on sentence structure if you need a refresher.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We would like to see less personal cellphone use from employees during working hours, however you can of course use your cellphone in an emergency.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We would like to see less personal cellphone use from employees during working hours; however, you can of course use your cellphone in an emergency.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe incorrect sentence above is a comma splice because it uses only a comma to separate two independent clauses (see <a href=\"#cr12\">Comma Rule 1.2<\/a>). The error is easier to spot if you imagine deleting the conjunctive adverb however. Replacing the comma with a semicolon and adding a comma after the conjunctive adverb easily fixes the problem.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You can put the meeting in the calendar make it so we get a notification the day before.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You can put the meeting in the calendar; make it so we get a notification the day before.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe incorrect sentence above is a run-on sentence because it contains two independent clauses without any punctuation between them. Adding a semicolon quickly makes the sentence a properly punctuated compound sentence.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#534\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Semicolons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"scr2\"><\/a>Semicolon Rule 2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a semicolon between sub-lists in a series of lists in a sentence.<\/h3>\r\nUse semicolons as a \u201csuper comma\u201d between groups of items in a long list of items arranged in a sentence.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Please send T4s to Brenda, Albert, and Joan in Accounting; Jeremy, Lorraine, and Drew in Marketing; and Jasmine, Lily, and Alphonso in Legal.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The semicolon acts as a \u201csuper comma\u201d that separates three sub-lists of three employees each according to their respective department in an office.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe semicolon helps the reader see subgroups within a long list that would be confusing if it included ands between the two last items in each subgroup throughout.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for sentences that contain long lists and see if there are internal groupings that can be separated with semicolons rather than commas.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>She was a kind mother, sister, and daughter, a dedicated public servant, business owner, and campaigner for progressive issues, as well as a kind soul with an insatiable curiosity, brilliant mind, and a big heart.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>She was a kind mother, sister, and daughter; a dedicated public servant, business owner, and campaigner for progressive issues; as well as a kind soul with an insatiable curiosity, brilliant mind, and a big heart.<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the incorrect example above, the long list of items is internally organized into groups of family and professional roles, as well as personal qualities. To help the reader follow these divisions as they switch from one group to another, the semicolon acts as a \u201csuper comma.\u201d\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#534\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Semicolons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"scr3\"><\/a>Semicolon Rule 3:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Don\u2019t put a semicolon where a colon should be used.<\/h3>\r\nDon\u2019t use semicolons as if they were interchangeable with colons. They are different punctuation marks performing different functions. Review the semicolon rules above and compare with <a href=\"#533\">\u00a75.3.3<\/a> on uses for colons.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook for semicolons and determine if they are being used appropriately in the manner described in the rules above, or if they are actually performing the functions of colons explained and exemplified in <a href=\"#533\">\u00a75.3.3<\/a> above. You can jump straight to every instance of a semicolon throughout your document by performing a word search (ctrl. + f) and just typing in a semicolon (;).\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Please send notifications to the following people; your family, friends, employer(s), legal representative(s), and financial planner(s).<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Please send notifications to the following people: your family, friends, employer(s), legal representative(s), and financial planner(s).<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the incorrect example above, the semicolon is being used to introduce a list of items, which is the function of a colon (see <a href=\"#cor11\">Colon Rule 1<\/a>). Simply replacing the semicolon with a colon corrects the error.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#534\">Return to<strong> Quick Rules: Semicolons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nFor more on colons, see the following resources:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=978\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Guide to Grammar and Writing\u2019s Semicolon\u2019s page<\/a> along with its <a href=\"http:\/\/www.dactivity.com\/activity\/index.aspx?content=2ihf3ExmqU\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Semicolons, Colons, and Commas digital-activity exercises<\/a> at the bottom (Darling, 2014h)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/977\/04\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Purdue OWL\u2019s Punctuation\u2014Semicolons, Colons, and Parentheses page<\/a> (Cimisko, 2018)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/semicolon.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Punctuation Guide\u2019s Semicolon page<\/a> (Penn, 2011d)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/semicolons.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Grammar Book\u2019s Semicolons page<\/a> and its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/semicolons_and_colons_1.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Semicolons and Colons Quiz 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/semicolons_and_colons_2.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Semicolons and Colons Quiz 2<\/a> at the bottom (Straus, 2014b)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h1><a id=\"535\"><\/a>5.3.5: Parentheses<b><\/b><\/h1>\r\n<img class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-96\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/parenthesis-300x171.png\" alt=\"parentheses and brackets\" width=\"300\" height=\"171\" \/>Parentheses are often confused with brackets because they look alike and perform similar functions. Parentheses are curved lines that surround qualifying, non-essential elements, whereas brackets are squared, open-ended boxes used for very specific parenthetical situations. Let\u2019s take a closer look at the occasions for which we would use parentheses rather than brackets or even commas.<b><\/b>\r\n<h2>Quick Rules: Parentheses<\/h2>\r\nClick on the rules below to see further explanations, examples, advice on what to look for when proofreading, and demonstrations of how to correct common parentheses errors associated with each one.\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#pr11\">Parentheses Rule 1.1<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put parentheses around qualifying interjections of lesser importance within and between sentences.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>He put the folder (the green one, not the blue) in the filing cabinet thinking it was a client file rather than an administrative one.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#pr12\">Parentheses Rule 1.2<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Don\u2019t use parentheses where parenthetical commas would do.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>He put the green folder, not the blue one, in the filing cabinet.<\/em> (commas used instead of parentheses)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#pr2\">Parentheses Rule 2<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put parentheses around in-text citations crediting research sources in APA and MLA documentation styles.<\/strong>\r\n\r\nCellphones are giving youths neck and back problems typically seen in much older people (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S1529943017300967\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cu\u00e9llar &amp; Lanman, 2017<\/a>).<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2>Extended Explanations<\/h2>\r\n<h3><a id=\"pr11\"><\/a>Parentheses Rule 1.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put parentheses around qualifying interjections of lesser importance within and between sentences.<\/h3>\r\nUse parentheses around interjections within a sentence where using parenthetical commas would lead to confusion. You can also use parentheses around an entire sentence that offers an aside that helps explain something said in the sentence previous. Parentheses always come in pairs: an <strong>opening parenthesis<\/strong> signals the beginning of an interjection of lesser importance, and a <strong>closing parenthesis<\/strong> signals the return to the sentence proper. When used around an entire sentence, the closing parenthesis goes <em>after<\/em> the sentence-ending period; otherwise, it goes before.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We called pest control to get our office back from the vermin (silverfish, mites, house flies, fruit flies, and spiders) that seem to have taken up residency this past year.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The parentheses mark off a list that digresses from the main point of the sentence with a series of illustrative examples. Parentheses are a better alternative to parenthetical commas because they would confuse the reader with two different types of commas: parenthetical and series.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I\u2019ve come around in my opinion of the common house centipede. (I used to squash them at first sight.) It turns out that they\u2019re effective pest control agents themselves.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The parentheses mark off a whole sentence as a slightly digressive aside interrupting the flow of the main point.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe parentheses guide the reader towards reading the words, phrases, and clauses surrounded by them as being of lesser importance but still offering insight into what comes immediately before them.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook to make sure that the parentheses you use genuinely set off words, phrases, or clauses that help explain those that came before them, and that the parentheses both open and close. If you use parentheses around a whole sentence, ensure that the closing parenthesis goes to the right of the period rather than to the left.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I know house centipedes, scutigera coleoptrata, are ugly, but I\u2019m sure you would much rather have them in your home than the vermin they feed on.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I know house centipedes (scutigera coleoptrata, are ugly, but I\u2019m sure you would much rather have them in your home than the vermin they feed on.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I know house centipedes (scutigera coleoptrata) are ugly, but I\u2019m sure you would much rather have them in your home than the vermin they feed on.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe incorrect example above uses parenthetical commas to set off the Latin name of the insect referred to in the first clause, then uses a <a href=\"#\">Rule 1.1 comma<\/a> to crowd the area with commas. Parentheses would be more appropriate here, as well as in the second incorrect example that omits the closing parenthesis. The second sentence also places the parenthetical element at the end of the clause rather than where it should be: immediately after the common name of the insect it explains.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The next time you see a house centipede stuck in your bathtub, throw it a lifeline. (Don\u2019t try to pick it up; they\u2019re extremely fragile and fall apart at the slightest touch). Just rest one end of a metre stick on the edge of the tub and put the other end inside so the little guy can use it as a ramp to climb up and out.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The next time you see a house centipede stuck in your bathtub, throw it a lifeline. (Don\u2019t try to pick it up; they\u2019re extremely fragile and fall apart at the slightest touch.) Just rest one end of a metre stick on the edge of the tub and put the other end inside so the little guy can use it as a ramp to climb up and out.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe incorrect sentence places the closing parenthesis to the left of the period ending the parenthetical sentence; if the parenthetical sentence were deleted along with the parentheses, the period would be stranded between sentences. Correcting this involves simply moving the period so it goes to the left of the closing parenthesis.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#535\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Parentheses<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"pr12\"><\/a>Parentheses Rule 1.2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Don\u2019t use parentheses where parenthetical commas would do.<\/h3>\r\nDon\u2019t overuse parentheses, especially where parenthetical commas would be more appropriate. Recall that, according to <a href=\"#cr31\">Comma Rule 3.1<\/a>, commas can surround parenthetical, non-essential words, phrases, and clauses added to explain immediately what came before. Whether you use commas or parentheses, the sentence must make grammatical sense without the interjected element. The problem with overusing parentheses, however, is that it clutters up your writing with distracting asides, so the less conspicuous comma is preferable in situations where a parenthetical element doesn\u2019t need full parentheses.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook to make sure that the parentheses you use can\u2019t be replaced with commas without causing confusion. In other words, if the parenthetical element follows <a href=\"#cr31\">Comma Rule 3.1<\/a> and doesn\u2019t involve other types of commas covered by the other rules, then use commas instead of parentheses.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>At the same time, the market dropped a few thousand points (which wouldn\u2019t have been so bad if it didn\u2019t stay down for so long), so no one was buying anything.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>At the same time, the market dropped a few thousand points, which wouldn\u2019t have been so bad if it didn\u2019t stay down for so long, so no one was buying anything.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe incorrect example above includes a restrictive relative clause beginning with which, which is a perfect example of a non-essential parenthetical clause that we saw being set off from the main clause in <a href=\"#cr31\">Comma Rule 3.1<\/a> above. In this case, commas would be better to use than parentheses.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#535\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Parentheses<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"pr2\"><\/a>Parentheses Rule 2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put parentheses around in-text citations crediting research sources in APA and MLA documentation styles.<b><\/b><\/h3>\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Others argue that \u201ctext neck\u201d is neither a true epidemic nor even a true ailment <a href=\"https:\/\/vitals.lifehacker.com\/text-neck-was-never-a-real-epidemic-1822024249\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">(Skwarecki, 2018)<\/a>, just as \u201cbook neck\u201d was never a condition that concerned anyone.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The parentheses mark off an APA-style in-text citation.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe parentheses tell the reader that the quotation, paraphrase, or summary came from the author or authors named within the parentheses. The reader can then consult the References section at the end of the document and easily find the full bibliographical reference for that source by searching out the same author last name in the alphabetical list of source authors. When citing multiple works by the same author, the year of publication in the citation allows the reader to distinguish between them (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/3-5-documenting-sources-in-apa-mla-or-ieee-styles#352\/\">\u00a73.5.2<\/a>-<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/3-5-documenting-sources-in-apa-mla-or-ieee-styles#353\/\">\u00a73.5.3<\/a> above for more on citations and references).\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook to make sure that you use parentheses rather than brackets if your documentation style is APA or MLA. IEEE, on the other hand, does use brackets, albeit with a numerical citation rather than author and year.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">\u201c<em>Text neck\u201d results from people straining their necks hunched over cellphones for several more hours per day, and thousands more per year, than they would if they were just reading books [Shoshany, 2015].<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>\u201cText neck\u201d results from people straining their necks hunched over cellphones for several more hours per day, and thousands more per year, than they would if they were just reading books <a href=\"https:\/\/www.spine-health.com\/blog\/modern-spine-ailment-text-neck\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">(Shoshany, 2015)<\/a>.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe incorrect sentence above uses brackets rather than parentheses to mark off an in-text citation. Use parentheses for APA or MLA in-text citations.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#535\">Return to<strong> Quick Rules: Parentheses<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nFor more on parentheses, see the following resources:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/977\/04\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Purdue OWL\u2019s Punctuation\u2014Semicolons, Colons, and Parentheses page<\/a> (Cimisko, 2018)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/parentheses.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Punctuation Guide\u2019s Parentheses page<\/a> (Penn, 2011e)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/parens.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Grammar Book\u2019s Parentheses and Brackets page<\/a> and its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/question_marks_1.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Question Marks, Quotation Marks, and Parentheses Quiz 1<\/a> linked at the bottom (Straus, 2014c)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h1><a id=\"536\"><\/a>5.3.6: Brackets<b><\/b><\/h1>\r\n<img class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-97\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/brackets-300x173.png\" alt=\"brackets and parentheses\" width=\"300\" height=\"173\" \/>Brackets are often confused with parentheses because they look alike and perform similar functions. Brackets are squared open-ended boxes used for more specific parenthetical situations than their curved-line counterparts. Let\u2019s take a closer look at the occasions for which we would use brackets rather than parentheses.<b><\/b>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2>Quick Rules: Brackets<\/h2>\r\nClick on the rules below to see further explanations, examples, advice on what to look for when proofreading, and demonstrations of how to correct common bracket errors associated with each one.\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#br11\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Brackets Rule 1.1<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put brackets around changes or additions to the wording of quotations.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>He clearly wrote that \u201cThe contract [was] for $1.2 million [CDN] over five years\u201d back in 2012.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#br12\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Brackets Rule 1.2<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Don\u2019t put brackets around what should have parentheses.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>There\u2019s no law of physics (at least not technically) that keeps top athletes from running the 100m in under 9 seconds.<\/em> (parentheses appropriate instead of brackets)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#br2\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Brackets Rule 2<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put brackets around parenthetical elements within parentheses.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>We didn\u2019t have a clue what was causing the issue (we scoured the troubleshooting manual [Brul\u00e9, 2012]), so they shut it down.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#br3\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Brackets Rule 3<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put brackets around numerical in-text citations crediting research sources when required to use IEEE style.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>Cellphones are giving youth neck and back problems typically seen in much older people [1].<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2>Extended Explanations<\/h2>\r\n<h3><a id=\"br11\"><\/a>Brackets Rule 1.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put brackets around changes or additions to the wording of quotations.<\/h3>\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<em>The president tweeted that \u201cAll of the phony T.V. commercials against [him were] bought and payed [sic] for by SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS.\u201d<\/em>\r\n\r\n<strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The first brackets change the original \u201cme are\u201d to \u201chim were\u201d to be consistent with the third-person orientation and past-tense verb in the signal phrase. The bracketed \u201c[<em>sic<\/em>]\u201d indicates that the quotation\u2019s spelling mistake was in the original source and intentionally kept rather than introduced by the writer when repeating the quotation.\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe brackets indicate what changes the writer makes to a quotation, whether to lend clarity to the original wording or to make it grammatically consistent with the sentence around it. Doing so shows a concern for both quoting accurately and writing correctly. Sneaking in some changes to a quotation to suit your purposes is called misquoting. Sometimes the additions draw attention to errors in the original, such as corrections to the spelling or the use of \u201c[<em>sic<\/em>],\u201d short for the Latin sic erat scriptum (\u201cthus was it written\u201d), to preserve the author\u2019s error.\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nEnsure that quotations are exact transcriptions of the original to avoid misquoting. If you find any intentional changes, surround them with brackets. Ensure also that any errors in the original quotation are preserved but identified with \u201c[<em>sic<\/em>]\u201d immediately following.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Apple\u2019s 1997 slogan encourages you to \u201cThink different\u201d by using their computers for outside-the-box solutions.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Apple\u2019s 1997 slogan encourages you to \u201cThink different [sic]\u201d by using their computers for outside-the-box solutions.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Apple\u2019s 1997 slogan encourages you to \u201cThink different[ly]\u201d by using their computers for outside-the-box solutions.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe incorrect example above contains a quotation that is grammatically incorrect in its original form. Adding \u201c[<em>sic<\/em>]\u201d ensures the reader that the critical writer is well aware that, with \u201cthink\u201d being a verb, \u201cdifferent\u201d would have to be the adverb \u201cdifferently\u201d to be correct. Adding the -ly ending in brackets takes a more corrective approach to the error.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#536\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Brackets<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"br12\"><\/a>Brackets Rule 1.2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Don\u2019t put brackets around what should have parentheses.<b><\/b><\/h3>\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nEnsure that the brackets you use don\u2019t follow either of the parentheses rules explained in <a href=\"#\">\u00a75.3.5<\/a> above.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I know house centipedes [<\/em>scutigera coleoptrata<em>] are ugly, but I\u2019m sure you would much rather have them in your home than the vermin they feed on.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I know house centipedes (<\/em>scutigera coleoptrata<em>) are ugly, but I\u2019m sure you would much rather have them in your home than the vermin they feed on.<\/em><\/p>\r\nThe incorrect example above mistakenly uses brackets around the parenthetical Latin name of the insect identified just before by its common name. Following <a href=\"#pr11\">Parentheses Rule 1.1<\/a>, however, you would just replace the brackets with parentheses.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#536\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Brackets<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"br2\"><\/a>Brackets Rule 2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put brackets around parenthetical elements within parentheses.<\/h3>\r\nUse brackets whenever you have parenthetical elements within a phrase or clause that is already surrounded by parentheses.\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Though \u201ctext neck\u201d is controversial (some argue that it was only ever a chiropractors\u2019 marketing gimmick <a href=\"https:\/\/vitals.lifehacker.com\/text-neck-was-never-a-real-epidemic-1822024249\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">[Skwarecki, 2018]<\/a>), it makes sense that neck strain sustained for several hours daily harms our musculoskeletal health.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The brackets mark off an in-text citation within a parenthetical statement. If not within parentheses, the citation would be framed by parentheses instead of brackets.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nBrackets help the reader keep track of nested parenthetical elements. Switching to brackets for parenthetical elements within parentheses also helps avoid the awkwardness of \u201cdouble-chin\u201d parentheses such as \u201c)).\u201d\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook to make sure that you don\u2019t double up parentheses with \u201c))\u201d anywhere in your document.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The snake-oil rhetoric of Dr. Fishman\u2019s website undermines the credibility of his \u201ctext neck\u201d concept (with a chronic lack of proper citations for research supporting his claims <a href=\"http:\/\/text-neck.com\/anatomy-and-effects-of-texting.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">(Fishman, 2018)<\/a>).<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The snake-oil rhetoric of Dr. Fishman\u2019s website undermines the credibility of his \u201ctext neck\u201d concept (with a chronic lack of proper citations for research supporting his claims <a href=\"http:\/\/text-neck.com\/anatomy-and-effects-of-texting.html\">[Fishman, 2018]<\/a>).<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the incorrect sentence above, parentheses are used within parentheses. Simply replace the inner parentheses with brackets.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#536\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Brackets<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3><a id=\"br3\"><\/a>Brackets Rule 3:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put brackets around IEEE-style numerical in-text citations crediting research sources.<b><\/b><\/h3>\r\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Physiopedia recommends holding up your mobile device so that it\u2019s level with your eyes and avoiding \u201cprolonged static postures\u201d <a href=\"https:\/\/www.physio-pedia.com\/Text_Neck\">[4]<\/a>.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The brackets mark off an IEEE-style numerical in-text citation.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\r\nThe brackets tell the reader that the quotation, paraphrase, or summary came from the research source numbered within the brackets. The reader can then consult the References section at the back and easily find the full bibliographical reference for that source by the corresponding number (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/3-5-documenting-sources-in-apa-mla-or-ieee-styles#354\/\">\u00a73.5.4<\/a> above for more on IEEE-style citations and references).\r\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\r\nLook to make sure that you use brackets rather than parentheses if your documentation style is IEEE, as opposed to APA or MLA, which use parentheses.\r\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Shoshany argues that \u201cText neck\u201d results from people straining their necks hunched over cellphones for several more hours per day, and thousands more per year, than they would if they were just reading books (5).<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Shoshany argues that \u201cText neck\u201d results from people straining their necks hunched over cellphones for several more hours per day, and thousands more per year, than they would if they were just reading books <a href=\"https:\/\/www.spine-health.com\/blog\/modern-spine-ailment-text-neck\">[5]<\/a>.<\/em><\/p>\r\nIn the incorrect example above, parentheses are used rather than brackets to mark off an in-text citation. The correct in-text citation style for IEEE is to use brackets instead.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#536\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Brackets<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nFor more on brackets, see the following resources:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/brackets.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Punctuation Guide\u2019s Brackets page<\/a> (Penn, 2011f)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/parens.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Grammar Book\u2019s Parentheses and Brackets page<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/question_marks_1.asp\">Question Marks, Quotation Marks, and Parentheses Quiz 1<\/a> linked at the bottom (Straus, 2014c)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h1><a id=\"537\"><\/a>5.3.7: Quotation Marks<b><\/b><\/h1>\r\n<img class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-98\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/quotes-300x216.png\" alt=\"Double quotation marks and single quotation marks\" width=\"300\" height=\"216\" \/>Quotation marks are mostly used to set reported speech or text apart from the author\u2019s words. They essentially say, \u201cThese are someone else\u2019s words, not mine.\u201d But some writers confuse double quotation marks (simply called \u201cquotation marks\u201d here) with single quotation marks, as well as misplace punctuation around quotation marks, so let\u2019s focus on when and how to use quotation marks, as well as single quotation marks, properly. Since the absence of quotation marks when using research sources in your document can result in plagiarism (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/3-4-using-source-text-quoting-paraphrasing-and-summarizing#341\/\">\u00a73.4.1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/3-5-documenting-sources-in-apa-mla-or-ieee-styles#351\/\">\u00a73.5.1<\/a> above), knowing how to use them correctly is vitally important to your success as a student and professional.<b><\/b>\r\n<h2>Quick Rules: Quotation Marks<\/h2>\r\nClick on the rules below to see further explanations, examples, advice on what to look for when proofreading, and demonstrations of how to correct common quotation mark errors associated with each one.\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.1<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Use quotation marks to indicate reported speech or text.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>She said, \u201c<strong>P<\/strong>ut the G-8320 form on the shared drive,\u201d not in your personal Dropbox, \u201c<strong>s<\/strong>o that it\u2019s available to all the associates.\u201d<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.2<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Use quotation marks in pairs to begin and end a quotation.<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.3<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Use a comma between a verb (or verb phrase) introducing a quotation and the quotation itself.<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.4<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Capitalize the first letter in a quotation unless it\u2019s only a fragment of one.<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.5<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Place periods and commas <em>before<\/em> the closing quotation mark, not after.<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.6<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Place colons and semicolons <em>after the closing quotation mark, not before.<\/em><\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>Like the main character in the 1998 Coen Brothers\u2019 film<\/em> The Big Lebowski, <em>\u201cthe dude abides\u201d; in other words, I\u2019ll be compliant.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.7<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Place question and exclamation marks <em>before<\/em> the closing quotation mark if they\u2019re part of the quotation and <em>after<\/em> if they\u2019re part of the sentence framing the quotation.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>I thought you were kidding when you asked, \u201cHow can I help?\u201d!<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.8<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Quote exactly what\u2019s between quotation marks; otherwise, use brackets to indicate changes made to words and ellipses for omissions.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>Prime Minister Trudeau insisted that \u201cBilingualism [was] not an imposition on the citizens. . . . [It was] an imposition on the state\u201d <\/em>(Problems of Journalism, 1966).<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.9<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Don\u2019t use quotation marks around a paraphrase (a.k.a. indirect quotation).<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>Prime Minister Trudeau insisted that the people were forcing two official languages on the country rather than the other way around.<\/em> (no quotation marks around the indirectly quoted speech)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 2<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Use quotation marks as \u201cscare quotes\u201d to draw attention to the way a word or phrase is used by others.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>You can\u2019t simply \u201cphone this one in\u201d because too many people will be depending on you doing this right.<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 3<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Use single quotation marks only for reported speech within a quotation.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>The interviewer then asked, \u201cWhat did you mean when you said, in 1997, \u2018The great thing about the hockey world is that there are a lot of people with loose lips\u2019?\u201d (<a href=\"http:\/\/nationalpost.com\/sports\/hockey\/nhl\/20-questions-with-tsns-bob-mckenzie-rivalry-with-sportsnet-crazy-hockey-parents-and-calling-the-cops-on-phil-esposito\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Fitz-Gerald, 2015<\/a>).<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 4<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Use quotation marks around the title of a short work within a larger work such as an article in a magazine or journal, webpage in a website, chapter in a book, song on an album, short film or TV episode in a series, etc.<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>The article \u201cBill Gates and Steve Jobs Raised Their Kids Tech-free\u2014and It Should Have Been a Red Flag\u201d (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/screen-time-limits-bill-gates-steve-jobs-red-flag-2017-10?utm_content=buffer3d073&amp;utm_medium=social&amp;utm_source=facebook.com&amp;utm_campaign=buffer-ti\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Weller, 2018<\/a>) made me reflect on my own technology addiction. <\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nFor more on quotations, see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/3-4-using-source-text-quoting-paraphrasing-and-summarizing#341\/\">\u00a73.4.1<\/a> above and the following resources:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=973\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Guide to Grammar and Writing\u2019s Quotation Marks page<\/a>, along with the digital-activity exercises at the bottom of the page (Darling, 2014i)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Purdue OWL\u2019s series of modules, starting with <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/577\/01\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">How to Use Quotation Marks <\/a>(Conrey, Pepper, &amp; Brizee, 2017) and ending with the exercises in the fifth module<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/quotes.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Grammar Book\u2019s Quotation Marks page<\/a> and its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/question_marks_1.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Question Marks, Quotation Marks, and Parentheses Quiz 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/question_marks_2.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Question Marks, Quotation Marks, and Parentheses Quiz 2<\/a> linked at the bottom (Straus, 2007a).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h1><a id=\"538\"><\/a>5.3.8: Hyphens<b><\/b><\/h1>\r\nUsing hyphens between two or more words in combination helps the reader treat them as if they were one word when the words around them would create ambiguity without the hyphen(s). We do this especially with compound modifiers, which are two or more adjectives that modify the same noun in combination. For instance, if you said that there was funding available for small business owners, does that mean funding is only available for people who are under five feet tall? (In that case, \u201cbusiness owners\u201d is read as a compound noun and \u201csmall\u201d is the adjective modifying it.) If you mean that funding is available for business owners who employ fewer than 15 people, then you want to use the compound-modifier hyphen to pair up \u201csmall\u201d and \u201cbusiness\u201d so that they are read as if they were one adjective modifying the noun \u201cowners\u201d: <em>small-business owners<\/em>. Hyphens help the reader by guiding them toward what words to pair up when it could go either way.\r\n\r\nThe same is true of hyphens used in compound nouns. Saying, \u201cIt was a light year\u201d means something completely different from \u201cIt was a light-year.\u201d In the first case, you\u2019re saying that nothing much happened that year; in the second, you\u2019re saying that something spanned nearly ten trillion kilometres. Hyphens matter!\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/ruthlesseditor.com\/compound-modifiers\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/ruthlesseditor.com\/compound-modifiers\/<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca\/tcdnstyl-chap?lang=eng&amp;lettr=chapsect2&amp;info0=2\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca\/tcdnstyl-chap?lang=eng&amp;lettr=chapsect2&amp;info0=2<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><a id=\"5381\"><\/a>5.3.8.1: Compound-modifier Hyphens<\/h2>\r\nThe most common use of hyphens is for compound modifiers\u2014that is, two or more adjectives that must be read in combination before a noun they describe. In fact, the hyphen you see between \u201ccompound\u201d and \u201cmodifier\u201d in the sentence above exemplifies how this works: since both of those words together (and in that order only) modify the noun \u201chyphen\u201d (\u201cmodify\u201d meaning that they tell you what kind of hyphen it is), the hyphen helps the reader identify which words functions as modifiers and which as nouns, since \u201cmodifier\u201d in this case behaves as an adjective rather than a noun. Without the hyphen, the reader might make the mistake of taking \u201cmodifier hyphen\u201d as a compound noun, as in the case of \u201csmall business owners\u201d above.\r\n\r\nIf you were to say that the USSR was the first second world country to de-communize, the combination \u201cfirst second\u201d would surely trip up the reader. But pairing \u201csecond\u201d and \u201cworld\u201d with a hyphen resolves the ambiguity to say \u201cThe USSR was the first second-world country to de-communize.\u201d<b><\/b>\r\n<h2><a id=\"t5381a\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1a: Common First-term Nouns in Compound Modifiers<\/h2>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Noun<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following a Noun<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>bottom-<\/strong>\r\nor\r\n<strong>top-<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>bottom-<\/strong>feeding fish\r\n<strong>top-<\/strong>shelf liquor\r\n<strong>top-<\/strong>tier player<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Those fish are <strong>bottom feeding<\/strong>.\r\nAll your liquor is <strong>top-shelf<\/strong>.\r\nThe players we churn out are all <strong>top-tier<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>high-<\/strong>\r\nor\r\n<strong>low-<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>high-<\/strong>calibre bullet\r\n<strong>low-<\/strong>cost solution\r\n<strong>high-<\/strong>fidelity sound\r\n<strong>low-<\/strong>life criminal\r\n<strong>high-<\/strong>quality products\r\n<strong>low-<\/strong>resolution screen<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Most of the bullets found were high <strong>calibre<\/strong>.\r\nLet\u2019s find a solution that\u2019s <strong>low-cost<\/strong>.\r\nI want a sound that\u2019s more high <strong>fidelity<\/strong>.\r\nHe is a total <strong>low-life<\/strong>.\r\nWe ship products that are mostly <strong>high quality<\/strong>.\r\nDon\u2019t use pictures with <strong>low resolution<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>self-<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>self-<\/strong>driven woman\r\n<strong>self-<\/strong>inflicted wound\r\n<strong>self-<\/strong>motivated boy\r\n<strong>self-<\/strong>taught pilot<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">She is very <strong>self-driven<\/strong>.\r\nWe don\u2019t treat wounds that are <strong>self-inflicted<\/strong>.\r\nHe is not <strong>self-motivated<\/strong> enough.\r\nI am totally <strong>self-taught<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>well-<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>well-<\/strong>known solution\r\n<strong>well-<\/strong>thought-out plan\r\n<strong>well-<\/strong>trained army\r\n<strong>well-<\/strong>written letter<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The solution is very <strong>well known<\/strong>.\r\nMy plan is very <strong>well thought out<\/strong>.\r\nWe\u2019re no match for an army so <strong>well trained<\/strong>.\r\nOnly send the letter if it is <strong>well written<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2><a id=\"#t5381b\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1b: Common Adverbs in Compound Modifiers<\/h2>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Noun<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following a Noun<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>fast-<\/strong>\r\nor\r\n<strong>slow-<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>Fast-<\/strong>moving process\r\n<strong>Slow-<\/strong>motion replay<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The process is <strong>fast-moving<\/strong> after that.\r\nLet\u2019s review the goal in <strong>slow motion<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>well-<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>well-<\/strong>chosen words\r\n<strong>well-<\/strong>known solution\r\n<strong>well-<\/strong>thought-out plan\r\n<strong>well-<\/strong>trained army\r\n<strong>well-<\/strong>written letter<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Your words were all <strong>well-chosen<\/strong>.\r\nThe solution is very <strong>well known<\/strong>.\r\nMy plan is very <strong>well thought out<\/strong>.\r\nWe\u2019re no match for an army so<strong> well trained<\/strong>.\r\nOnly send the letter if it is<strong> well written<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nException: Don\u2019t add hyphens after adverbs ending in <em>-ly<\/em>.<b><\/b>\r\n<h2><a id=\"#t5381c\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1c: Common Prefixes Making Compound Modifiers<\/h2>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Prefix<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following a Noun<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>all-<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>all-<\/strong>inclusive resort\r\n<strong>all-<\/strong>powerful tech giant\r\n<strong>all-<\/strong>out offensive<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Let\u2019s just go to an <strong>all-inclusive<\/strong>.\r\nGoogle\u2019s dominance has made it<strong> all-powerful<\/strong>.\r\nWe sent everyone so our offensive was <strong>all-out<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2><a id=\"#t5381d\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1d: Common Middle-term Prepositions in Three-part Compound Modifiers<\/h2>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Preposition<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Without a Noun Following<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-at-<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Stay<strong>-at-<\/strong>home mom<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">You work and I\u2019ll just <strong>stay at home<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-by-<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">case<strong>-by-<\/strong>case basis\r\nsix<strong>-by-<\/strong>six rule<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">We\u2019re just taking it case by case.\r\nFollow the rule called \u201csix by six\u201d<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-for-<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">word<strong>-for-<\/strong>word translation<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Don\u2019t copy <strong>word for word<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-of-<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Cost<strong>-of-<\/strong>living index\r\nOut<strong>-of-<\/strong>province funding<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The <strong>cost of living<\/strong> is always rising.\r\nThe funding came from <strong>out of province<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-on-<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">one<strong>-on-<\/strong>one game<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Let\u2019s play <strong>one on one<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-to-<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Back<strong>-to-<\/strong>back classes\r\nbusiness<strong>-to-<\/strong>business retailer\r\ncoast<strong>-to-<\/strong>coast flight\r\neasy<strong>-to-<\/strong>follow presentation\r\nup<strong>-to-<\/strong>date calendar<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">My two classes today are <strong>back to back<\/strong>.\r\nOur sales are B2B (<strong>business to business<\/strong>).\r\nI\u2019m flying <strong>coast to coast<\/strong> tonight.\r\nYour presentation was very easy to follow.\r\nMy calendar is all <strong>up to date<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2><a id=\"t5381e\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1e: Common Three-part Compound-modifier Phrases<\/h2>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Examples<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Without a Noun Following<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Long-drawn-out <\/strong>affair<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The affairs would all be long drawn out.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Off-the-charts<\/strong> happiness<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I wish you happiness that is totally off the charts.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>On-the-job<\/strong> training<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">All of the training will be done on the job.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2><a id=\"t5381f\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1f: Common Foreign-phrase Compound Modifiers<\/h2>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Examples<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Without a Noun Following<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Avant-garde<\/strong> filmmaker<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">His latest film is more avant garde.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Laissez-faire<\/strong> capitalism<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Our approach is fairly laissez faire.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nDon\u2019t hyphenate more recently imported foreign phrases that are still italicized.\r\n<h2><a id=\"t5381g\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1g: Common End-term Nouns in Compound Modifiers<\/h2>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Noun<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Without a Noun Following<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-class<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">first<strong>-class<\/strong> cabin\r\nsecond<strong>-class<\/strong> citizen\r\neconomy<strong>-class<\/strong> seating<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I\u2019m going first <strong>class<\/strong>.\r\nThey treated me like I was second <strong>class<\/strong>.\r\nWe bought economy <strong>class<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-degree<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">first<strong>-degree<\/strong> burns<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I had burns in only the first <strong>degree<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-interest<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Special<strong>-interest<\/strong> groups<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">All of those groups are special <strong>interest<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-ready<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Game<strong>-ready<\/strong> athlete\r\nJob<strong>-ready<\/strong> graduate<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">All of our kids are game<strong>-ready<\/strong>.\r\nMy training makes me fully job<strong>-ready<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-scale<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Large<strong>-scale<\/strong> project<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I\u2019ve never done a project this large <strong>scale.<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-time<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">full<strong>-time<\/strong> job\r\nhalf<strong>-time <\/strong>show\r\npart<strong>-time<\/strong> employment<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">She works full <strong>time<\/strong>.\r\nLet\u2019s talk about it at half <strong>time<\/strong>.\r\nWe work part <strong>time<\/strong> on weekends.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2><a id=\"t5381h\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1h: Common Past-participles Following Nouns<\/h2>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Past Participle<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following the Noun<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-based<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">evidence<strong>-based<\/strong> treatment\r\nfaith<strong>-based<\/strong> reasoning<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The treatment is evidence<strong>-based<\/strong>.\r\nThe programming is all faith<strong>-based<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-bodied<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Able<strong>-bodied<\/strong> teenager<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">You\u2019re able<strong>-bodied<\/strong> enough.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-capped<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Snow<strong>-capped<\/strong> mountains<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The mountains are nicely snow<strong>-capped<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-edged<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">double<strong>-edged <\/strong>sword<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">That sword is doubled <strong>edged<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-eyed<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">cross<strong>-eyed<\/strong> goofball<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">She went cross<strong>-eyed<\/strong> after a mule kick.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-faced<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Two<strong>-faced<\/strong> charlatan<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">That guy is so two<strong>-faced<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-filled<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">garbage<strong>-filled<\/strong> bins<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Those bins are all garbage <strong>filled<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-focused<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">solution<strong>-focused<\/strong> apology<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The apology was solution <strong>focused<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-footed<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Fleet<strong>-footed<\/strong> deliverer<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The delivery man is fleet<strong>-footed<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-handed<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Left<strong>-handed<\/strong> writer\r\nRight-handed stick\r\nShort-handed goal<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">We want a writer who is left <strong>handed<\/strong>.\r\nPass me a stick that\u2019s right <strong>handed<\/strong>.\r\nThe goal was short<strong>-handed<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-oriented<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">audience<strong>-oriented<\/strong> writing\r\nclient<strong>-oriented<\/strong> response<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The writing is more audience<strong>-oriented<\/strong>.\r\nMake it more client<strong>-oriented<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-sided<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">many<strong>-sided<\/strong> issue\r\neight<strong>-sided<\/strong> dice<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The issue is many <strong>sided<\/strong>.\r\nThis dice is eight<strong>-sided<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-willed<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Strong-willed daughter<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">My daughter sure is <strong>strong-willed<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2><a id=\"t5381i\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1i: Common End-term Present-participle and Gerund Compound-modifier Adjectives<\/h2>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Present Participle<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following the Noun<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-bearing<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">child<strong>-bearing<\/strong> hips\r\nload<strong>-bearing<\/strong> walls<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">These hips are child<strong>-bearing<\/strong>.\r\nDon\u2019t remove walls that are load <strong>bearing<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-ending<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">never<strong>-ending<\/strong> happiness<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I hope your happiness is <strong>never ending<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-jerking<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Tear<strong>-jerking<\/strong> performance<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The performance was tear<strong>-jerking<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-making<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">decision<strong>-making<\/strong> process<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I\u2019m good at decision <strong>making<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-sharing<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">profit<strong>-sharing<\/strong> plan<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Profit sharing<\/strong> is a strong incentive.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-solving<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">problem<strong>-solving<\/strong> skills<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">My best skill is <strong>problem solving<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-sounding<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Odd<strong>-sounding<\/strong> name<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Their names are all <strong>odd sounding<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-speaking<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">English<strong>-speaking<\/strong> world\r\nFrench<strong>-speaking<\/strong> politician<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Those areas are English<strong>-speaking<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-talking<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Smooth<strong>-talking<\/strong> sales rep<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">He was fairly smooth<strong>-talking<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-wrenching<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Gut<strong>-wrenching<\/strong> scene<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The scene was so gut<strong>-wrenching<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2><a id=\"t5381j\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1j: Common End-term Preposition Compound-modifier Adjectives<\/h2>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Preposition<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following the Noun<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-after<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">sought<strong>-after<\/strong> jobs<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">These jobs are highly sought<strong>-after<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-by<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">drive<strong>-by<\/strong> shooting<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Last night\u2019s shooting was a drive<strong>-by<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-down<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Trickle<strong>-down<\/strong> economics<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">That wealth didn\u2019t quite trickle <strong>down<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-out<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">All<strong>-out<\/strong> war<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The war went <strong>all-out<\/strong> after a year.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-up<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">made<strong>-up<\/strong> names\r\nbuilt<strong>-up <\/strong>neighbourhood<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Those names sound so made <strong>up<\/strong>.\r\nThe area is more built <strong>up<\/strong> now.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2><a id=\"t5381k\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1k: Common Number + Time-period Compound Modifiers<\/h2>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Duration<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following the Noun<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-day<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Five<strong>-day<\/strong> trial period<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The trial period lasts five <strong>days<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-hour<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Eleventh<strong>-hour<\/strong> bid<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The bid came in the eleventh <strong>hour<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-minute<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">25<strong>-minute<\/strong> presentation<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The presentation lasted 25 <strong>minutes<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-month<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Ten<strong>-month<\/strong> term<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The term ends after ten <strong>months<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-second<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Nine<strong>-second<\/strong> sprint<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">He finished in under ten <strong>seconds<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-week<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">32<strong>-week<\/strong> co-op term<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The co-op term is 32 <strong>weeks<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-year<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Four<strong>-year<\/strong> degree program<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">An applied degree takes four <strong>years<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The second second-rate actor<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">the director wanted the second actor to be second rate<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The film\u2019s 15-week run shattered box-office records<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The film shattered box-office records with its run of 15 weeks<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Two-way street<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">that street goes two ways<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">After-tax income<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Our income after taxes is laughable.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Duty-free goods<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">First-come-first-served basis<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Garbage-filled streets<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Gut-wrenching scene<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Large-scale development<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Many-sided issue<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Mountain-climbing enthusiast<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Odd-sounding name<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">One-trick pony<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">This pony has only one trick<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">one-sentence paragraph<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">That paragraph only has one sentence.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Out-of-province funding<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">We went out of province for our funding.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Pay-as-you-go plan<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">We selected a plan that would have us pay as we go.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Quick-witted lady<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Short-handed goal<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Smooth-talking salesman<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Snow-capped mountains<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Soon-to-be graduate<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Strong-willed grandma<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Two-faced charlatan<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Tax-exempt services<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Tear-jerking performance<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Time-consuming activity<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Trickle-down economics<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Claiming that wealth will trickle down is irresponsible.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">User-friendly design<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Would-be writer<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nBut some have become one word, like handwritten and handmade, standalone\r\n<h3>Compound adjectival Numbers<\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Two-thirds majority<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">two thirds of the respondents<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Two-year-old child<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">the child is two years old<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I\u2019ve got ninety-nine problems, and grammar ain\u2019t one.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Pass the puck to number ninety-nine.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h3>Suspended Hyphens<\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The 12- and 13-year-old kids<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">the kids are 12 and 13 years old<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The well-known and -loved song<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">the song became well known and loved<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">How to treat first-, second-, and third-degree burns<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">the burns were first, second, and third degree<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Funding for medium- to large-scale businesses<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Scores in the six- to seven-point range<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h3>Prefixes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Big hair in the mid-1980s<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Populism results in new accusations of anti-Americanism (because \u201cAmerica\u201d is capitalized)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>My ex-girlfriend and I haven\u2019t spoken in a decade<\/li>\r\n \t<li>I re-wrote the essay<\/li>\r\n \t<li>e-mail<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Not with adverbs ending in <em>-ly<\/em><\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2>Compound Nouns<\/h2>\r\nAgain, anything starting with \u201cself-\u201d (e.g., self-starter, self-esteem, self-care), \u201cgreat-\u201d (e.g., great-grandmother, great-uncle), or ending with \u201c-in-law\u201d (e.g., mother-in-law, sister-in-law) and numbers above 20 (twenty-one, forty-three). If someone said that you have poor people skills, does that mean you have skill in dealing with poor people? By hyphenating \u201cpeople-skills,\u201d they make it clear that you could be better at dealing with people in general.\r\n<h3><a id=\"t5382a\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.2a:\u00a0Common Compound Units of Measurement<\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Unit<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following a Noun<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-hours<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Kilowatt<strong>-hours<\/strong>\r\nWork<strong>-hours<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I\u2019ve racked up a few <strong>kilowatt-hours<\/strong> this winter.\r\nThis project should take about 20 <strong>work-hours<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-miles<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">air<strong>-miles<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Do you collect <strong>air-miles<\/strong>?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-year<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">light<strong>-year<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The next star is about _ <strong>light-years<\/strong> away.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h3><a id=\"t5382b\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.2b: Common Prefixes Making Compound Nouns<\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Prefix<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following a Noun<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>all-<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>all-<\/strong>inclusive resort\r\n<strong>all-<\/strong>powerful tech giant\r\n<strong>all-<\/strong>out offensive<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Let\u2019s just go to an <strong>all-inclusive<\/strong>.\r\nGoogle\u2019s dominance has made it <strong>all-powerful<\/strong>.\r\nWe sent everyone so our offensive was <strong>all-out<\/strong>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>ex-<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>ex-<\/strong>girlfriend\r\n<strong>ex-<\/strong>parrot\r\n<strong>ex-<\/strong>premier Harcourt<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I haven\u2019t talked to my <strong>ex-<\/strong>girlfriend in ten years.\r\nThat bird is dead. It is an <strong>ex-<\/strong>parrot.\r\nThe <strong>ex-<\/strong>premier will be meeting with us today.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>self-<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>self-<\/strong>control\r\n<strong>self-<\/strong>loathing<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I\u2019m exercising some <strong>self-control<\/strong> here.\r\nI follow up my dessert with a little <strong>self-loathing<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h3><a id=\"t5382c\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.2c: Common Three- or Four-term Compound Nouns<\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Compound Noun<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Plural<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">forget-me<strong>-not<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">forget-me<strong>-nots<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Jack-<\/strong>of-all-trades<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Jacks-<\/strong>of-all-trades<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>mother-<\/strong>in-law\r\n<strong>father-<\/strong>in-law<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>mothers-<\/strong>in-law\r\n<strong>fathers-<\/strong>in-law<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Ne\u2019er-do<strong>-well<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Ne\u2019er-do<strong>-wells<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Stick-<\/strong>in-the-mud<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>sticks-<\/strong>in-the-mud<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Writer-<\/strong>in-residence<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>writers-<\/strong>in-residence<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Box-office<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">box-offices<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Fixer-upper<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">fixer-uppers<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Great-grandfather<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Great-grandfathers<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Court-martial<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">courts-martial<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Vice-president<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">vice-presidents<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Tractor-trailer<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">tractor-trailers<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Cabinet-maker<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">cabinet-makers<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Singer-songwriter<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">singer-songwriters<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">City-state<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">city-states<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">A has-been<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">has-beens<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Sing-along<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">sing-alongs<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nSome words have become one word like headache, checkout, chequebook, uproar, downpour, input, sunrise, clearinghouse, bookkeeper, housekeeper, sightseeing, shipbuilding, cabinetmaker, blackboard, redhead, workplace, and even email\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.capstoneediting.com.au\/blog\/how-to-hyphenate-a-compound-noun\">https:\/\/www.capstoneediting.com.au\/blog\/how-to-hyphenate-a-compound-noun<\/a>\r\n<h2>Compound Verbs<\/h2>\r\nUsually pairing a noun with a verb, but some are now combined into one word.\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 33.33%\">With hyphens<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 33.33%\">One-word compounds<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 33.33%\">Two words (verb + preposition)<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 33.33%\">to air-condition\r\nto baby-sit\r\nto colour-code\r\nto copy-edit\r\nto double-check\r\nto double-click\r\nto dry-clean\r\nto Google-search\r\nto hand-wash\r\nto ice-skate\r\nto proof-edit\r\nto reverse-engineer\r\nto second-guess\r\nto spot-check\r\nto test-drive\r\nto window-shop<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 33.33%\">to downgrade\r\nto ghostwrite\r\nto handpick\r\nto handwrite\r\nto multitask\r\nto proofread\r\nto shortchange\r\nto troubleshoot\r\nto waterproof\r\nto whitewash<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 33.33%\">To check out\r\nTo log in\r\nTo step up<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nSource: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.proofreadnow.com\/blog\/bid\/29485\/Grammar-Usage-Compound-Verbs\">Grammar Usage \u2013 Compound Verbs<\/a> (Jamieson, 2010)\r\n\r\nFor more on hyphens, see the following resources:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=938\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>\u2019s Hyphens page<\/a> and digital-activity punctuation exercises linked at the bottom (Darling, 2014j)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/576\/01\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>Purdue OWL<\/em>\u2019s Hyphen Use<\/a> (Conrey &amp; Stolley, 2013)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/hyphen.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Punctuation Guide\u2019<\/em>s Hyphens page<\/a> (Penn, 2011g)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/hyphens.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Grammar Book<\/em>\u2019s Hyphens page<\/a> and its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/hyphens_advanced_1.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Hyphens Quiz 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/hyphens_advanced_2.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Hyphens Quiz 2<\/a> at the bottom of the page (Straus, 2007b)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a>\r\n<h1><a id=\"539\"><\/a>5.3.9: Long Dashes<\/h1>\r\nFor more on long dashes, see the following resources:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=912\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>\u2019s Dashes<\/a> page and digital-activity punctuation exercises linked at the bottom (Darling, 2014k)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/977\/05\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>Purdue OWL<\/em>\u2019s Punctuation\u2014Hyphens and Dashes<\/a> page (Cimasko, 2013)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/hyphen-and-dashes.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>\u2019s Hyphen and Dashes<\/a> page (Penn, 2011h)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/dashes.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Grammar Book<\/em>\u2019s Dashes<\/a> page (Straus, 2018b)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a>\r\n<h1><a id=\"5310\"><\/a>5.3.10: Question Marks<\/h1>\r\nQuestion marks obviously follow questions. However, if the question is a polite request for action rather than one where a Yes or No answer is expected\u2014i.e., a rhetorical question\u2014end the sentence with a period rather than a question mark <a href=\"https:\/\/www.proofreadnow.com\/blog\/polite-requests\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">(Jamieson, 2014)<\/a>.\r\n\r\nFor more on long dashes, see the following resources:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=963\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>\u2019s Question Marks<\/a> page (Darling, 2014l)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/question-mark.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>\u2019s Question Mark<\/a> page (Penn, 2012)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/qMarks.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Grammar Book<\/em>\u2019s Question Marks<\/a> page and its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/question_marks_1.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Question Marks, Quotation Marks, and Parentheses Quiz 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/question_marks_2.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Question Marks, Quotation Marks, and Parentheses Quiz 2<\/a> linked at the bottom (Straus, 2014d)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a>\r\n<h1><a id=\"5311\"><\/a>5.3.11: Exclamation Marks<\/h1>\r\nFor more on exclamation marks, which should be used sparingly, see the following resources:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=931\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>\u2019s Exclamation Marks<\/a> page (Darling, 2014m)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/exclamation-point.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>\u2019s Exclamation Point<\/a> page (Penn, 2011i)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/exclaim.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Grammar Book<\/em>\u2019s Exclamation Points page<\/a> (Straus, 2015b)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a>\r\n<h1><a id=\"5312\"><\/a>5.3.12: Periods<\/h1>\r\nFor more on periods, see the following resources:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=954\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>\u2019s Periods page<\/a> and digital-activity punctuation exercises linked at the bottom (Darling, 2014n)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/period.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>\u2019s Period page<\/a> (Penn, 2011h)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/periods.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Grammar Book<\/em>\u2019s Periods<\/a> page (Straus, 2014e)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Key Takeaway<\/h3>\r\nNear the end of the editing stage, proofread for punctuation errors, such as comma and apostrophe misplacement, that would confuse your reader and embarrass yourself.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Exercises<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Go through the above sections and follow the links to self-check exercises at the end of each section to confirm your mastery of the punctuation rules.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Take any writing assignment you\u2019ve previously submitted for another course, ideally one that you did some time ago, perhaps even in high school. Scan for the punctuation errors covered in this section now that you know what to look for. How often do such errors appear? Correct them following the suggestions given above.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h2>References<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Austen, I. (2006, October 25). The comma that costs 1 million dollars (Canadian). <em>The New York Times<\/em>. Retrieved <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2006\/10\/25\/business\/worldbusiness\/25comma.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2006\/10\/25\/business\/worldbusiness\/25comma.html<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Ayoade, R. [Beggars USA]. (2008, June 25).<em>Vampire Weekend \u2013 Oxford Comma<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=P_i1xk07o4g\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=P_i1xk07o4g<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Bowal, P, &amp; Layton, J. (2014, March 6). Comma law. <em>LawNow: Relating law to life in Canada<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.lawnow.org\/comma-law\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.lawnow.org\/comma-law\/<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Caldwell, D. (2016). Oxford comma. <em>Know Your Meme.<\/em> Retrieved from<a href=\"http:\/\/knowyourmeme.com\/memes\/oxford-comma\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> http:\/\/knowyourmeme.com\/memes\/oxford-comma<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Cimisko, T. (2013, March 22). Punctuation\u2014hyphens and dashes. <em>Purdue OWL<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/977\/05\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/977\/05\/<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Cimisko, T. (2018, April 17). Punctuation\u2014semicolons, colons, and parentheses. <em>Purdue OWL<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/977\/04\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/977\/04\/<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Conrey, S. M., &amp; Stolley, K. (2013, June 7). Hyphen use. <em>Purdue OWL<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/576\/01\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/576\/01\/<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Cu\u00e9llar, J. M., &amp; Lanman, T. H. (2017, June). \u201cText neck\u201d: An epidemic of the modern era of cell phones? <em>The Spine Journal<\/em> 17(6), 901-902. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S1529943017300967\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S1529943017300967<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014a). Conjunctions. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=1566#sub\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=1566#sub<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014b). Phrases. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=3257\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=3257<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014c). Adverbs. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=1543\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=1543<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014d). Clauses. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=3745\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=3745<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014e). Commas. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=898\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=898<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014f). Apostrophes. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=859\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=859<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014g). Colons. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=886\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=886<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014h). Semicolons. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=978\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=978<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014i). Quotation marks. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=973\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=973<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014j). Hyphens. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=938\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=938<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014k). Dashes. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=912\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=912<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014l). Question marks. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=963\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=963<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014m). Exclamation marks. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=931\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=931<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014n). Periods. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=954\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=954<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Driscoll, D., &amp; Brizee, A. (2018, February 16). Extended rules for using commas. <em>Purdue OWL<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/607\/02\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/607\/02\/<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Fitz-Gerald, S. (2015, May 29). 20 questions with TSN\u2019s Bob McKenzie: Rivalry with Sportsnet, crazy hockey parents and calling the cops on Phil Esposito. <em>National Post<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/nationalpost.com\/sports\/hockey\/nhl\/20-questions-with-tsns-bob-mckenzie-rivalry-with-sportsnet-crazy-hockey-parents-and-calling-the-cops-on-phil-Esposito\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/nationalpost.com\/sports\/hockey\/nhl\/20-questions-with-tsns-bob-mckenzie-rivalry-with-sportsnet-crazy-hockey-parents-and-calling-the-cops-on-phil-Esposito<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Jamieson, P. (2010, January 7). Grammar usage \u2013 compound verbs.<em> ProofreadNOW<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.proofreadnow.com\/blog\/bid\/29485\/Grammar-Usage-Compound-Verbs\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.proofreadnow.com\/blog\/bid\/29485\/Grammar-Usage-Compound-Verbs<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Jamieson, P. (2014, July 16). Polite requests. <em>ProofreadNOW<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.proofreadnow.com\/blog\/polite-requests\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.proofreadnow.com\/blog\/polite-requests<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Keck, R., &amp; Angeli, E. (2018, February 21). Introduction and general usage in defining clauses. <em>Purdue OWL<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/645\/1\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/645\/1\/<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011a, July 10). Comma. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/comma.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/comma.html<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011b, December 16). Apostrophe. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/apostrophe.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/apostrophe.html<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011c, December 16). Colon. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/colon.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/colon.html<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011d, December 25). Semicolon. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/semicolon.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/semicolon.html<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011e, December 25). Parentheses. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/parentheses.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/parentheses.html<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011f, December 16). Brackets. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/brackets.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/brackets.html<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011g, December 16). Hyphens. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from<a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/hyphen.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/hyphen.html<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011h, December 16). Hyphen and dashes. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/hyphen-and-dashes.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/hyphen-and-dashes.html<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011i, December 16). Exclamation point. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/exclamation-point.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/exclamation-point.html<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011j, December 16). Period. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/period.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/period.html<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2012, January 2). Question mark. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/question-mark.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/question-mark.html<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Physiopedia. (2017, October 9). Text neck. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.physio-pedia.com\/Text_Neck\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.physio-pedia.com\/Text_Neck<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Postman, N. (1985). <em>Amusing ourselves to death: Public discourse in the age of show business<\/em>. London: Penguin Books. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/diatropebooks.com\/postman-n-amusing-ourselves-to-death-public-discourse-in-the-age-of-show-business\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/diatropebooks.com\/postman-n-amusing-ourselves-to-death-public-discourse-in-the-age-of-show-business\/<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Purdue OWL. (2010, July 24). Punctuation exercises: Commas. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/exercises\/3\/5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/exercises\/3\/5<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Purdue OWL. (2013, February 22). Apostrophes. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/exercises\/3\/5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/exercises\/3\/5<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Purdue OWL. (n.d.). Exercise: Apostrophes. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/exercises\/3\/3\/10\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/exercises\/3\/3\/10<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">pxhere. (2017, July 4). Zucchini [Image file]. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/pxhere.com\/en\/photo\/1386926\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/pxhere.com\/en\/photo\/1386926<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Simmons, R. L. (2001a, February 1). The participle. <em>Grammar Bytes!<\/em> Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/participle.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/participle.htm<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Simmons, R. L. (2001b, February 1). The appositive. <em>Grammar Bytes!<\/em> Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/appositive.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/appositive.htm<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Simmons, R. L. (2007a, November 24). The transitive verb. <em>Grammar Bytes!<\/em> Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/transitiveverb.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/transitiveverb.htm<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Simmons, R. L. (2007b, November 24). The conjunctive adverb. <em>Grammar Bytes!<\/em> Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/conjunctiveadverb.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/conjunctiveadverb.htm<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Simmons, R. L. (2008, January 24). The intransitive verb. <em>Grammar Bytes!<\/em> Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/intransitiveverb.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/intransitiveverb.htm<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Simmons, R. L. (2018a). Comma tip 6: Use commas correctly with a series of adjectives. <em>Grammar Bytes!<\/em> Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/handouts\/commatip06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/handouts\/commatip06.pdf<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Simmons, R. L. (2018b). The gerund. <em>Grammar Bytes!<\/em> Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/gerund.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/gerund.htm<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Shoshany, S. (2015, June 11). A modern spine ailment: Text neck. <em>Spine-health<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.spine-health.com\/blog\/modern-spine-ailment-text-neck\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.spine-health.com\/blog\/modern-spine-ailment-text-neck<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Skwarecki, B. (2018, January 12). Text neck was never a real epidemic. <em>Lifehacker<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/vitals.lifehacker.com\/text-neck-was-never-a-real-epidemic-1822024249\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/vitals.lifehacker.com\/text-neck-was-never-a-real-epidemic-1822024249<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2007a, May 30). Quotation marks.<em> The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/quotes.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/quotes.asp<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2007b, May 30). Hyphens. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/hyphens.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/hyphens.asp<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2014a, June 5). Apostrophes. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/apostro.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/apostro.asp<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2014b, June 5). Semicolons. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/semicolons.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/semicolons.asp<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2014c, June 5). Parentheses and brackets. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/parens.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/parens.asp<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2014d, February 18). Question marks. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/qMarks.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/qMarks.asp<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2014e, June 4). Periods. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/periods.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/periods.asp<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2015a, December 5). Colons. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/colons.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/colons.asp<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2015b, December 16). Colons. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/exclaim.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/exclaim.asp<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2018a). Commas. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/commas.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/commas.asp<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2018b). Dashes. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/dashes.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/dashes.asp<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Truss, L. (2003). <em>Eats, shoots &amp; leaves: The zero tolerance approach to punctuation<\/em>. New York: Gotham. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/penguinrandomhouse.ca\/books\/294386\/eats-shoots-and-leaves-by-lynne-truss\/excerpt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/penguinrandomhouse.ca\/books\/294386\/eats-shoots-and-leaves-by-lynne-truss\/excerpt<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Weller, C. (2018, January 10). <em>Bill Gates and Steve Jobs raised their kids tech-free \u2014 and it should've been a red flag<\/em>. Business Insider. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/screen-time-limits-bill-gates-steve-jobs-red-flag-2017-10\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/screen-time-limits-bill-gates-steve-jobs-red-flag-2017-10<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Wikipedia. (2018, February 24). List of English contractions. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:List_of_English_contractions\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:List_of_English_contractions<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Wiseman42. (2013, August 10). Cucumber from Denmark [Image file]. <em>Wikimedia Commons<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Cucumber_from_Denmark.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Cucumber_from_Denmark.jpg<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Write. (2012, April 27). Commas: Coordinate adjectives. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.write.com\/writing-guides\/general-writing\/punctuation\/mastering-the-art-of-comma-usage\/commas-coordinate-adjectives\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.write.com\/writing-guides\/general-writing\/punctuation\/mastering-the-art-of-comma-usage\/commas-coordinate-adjectives\/<\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>Identify and correct punctuation errors involving commas, apostrophes, colons and semicolons, parentheses and brackets, quotation marks, hyphens and dashes, question and exclamation marks, and periods.<\/li>\n<li>Plan, write, revise, and edit short documents and messages that are organized, complete, and tailored to specific audiences.\n<ol type=\"i\">\n<li>Apply proper use of sentence structure, grammar, and punctuation.<\/li>\n<li>Use a systematic approach to edit, revise, and proofread.<\/li>\n<li>Spell, punctuate, and use vocabulary correctly.<\/li>\n<li>Edit and proofread documents to eliminate errors.<\/li>\n<li>Revise documents to improve clarity, correctness, and coherence.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<p>As the little marks added between words, punctuation is like a system of traffic signs: it guides the reader towards the intended meaning of the words just as road signs guide drivers to their destination. They tell the reader when to go, when to pause, when to stop, when to go again, when to pay close attention, and when to turn <a href=\"https:\/\/penguinrandomhouse.ca\/books\/294386\/eats-shoots-and-leaves-by-lynne-truss\/excerpt\">(Truss, 2003, p. 7)<\/a>. They\u2019re also crucial for avoiding accidents. A paragraph without punctuation\u2014no periods, commas, apostrophes, etc.\u2014quickly spins out into utter nonsense and kills the reader\u2019s understanding of the writer\u2019s meaning.<\/p>\n<p>Punctuation that\u2019s merely missing or unnecessary here and there can confuse a reader and even lead to expensive lawsuits if they plague contentious documents like contracts. To anyone who knows how to use them, seeing punctuation mistakes in someone else\u2019s writing makes that other person look sloppy and amateurish. Punctuation errors by adult native English speakers look especially bad because they reflect poorly on their education and attention to detail, especially if they\u2019re habitual mistakes. The critical reader looks down on anyone who hasn\u2019t figured out how to use their own language in their 20+ years of immersion in it. Not knowing the difference between a colon and semicolon, for instance, is like not knowing the difference between a cucumber and a zucchini; sure they look alike from a distance, but they\u2019re completely different species and serve different culinary functions. If you don\u2019t know these differences by the time you\u2019re an adult, however, it doesn\u2019t take much to learn.<\/p>\n<p>In this section, we focus on how to spot and correct common punctuation errors, starting with commas because most problems with people\u2019s writing in general are related to missing and misused commas. The goal is to help you avoid making mistakes that can potentially embarrass you in the eyes of people who should be taking you seriously.<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"menu\"><\/a>Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#531\">5.3.1: Commas<\/a> ( , )<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#532\">5.3.2: Apostrophes<\/a> ( \u2019 )<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#533\">5.3.3: Colons<\/a> ( : )<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#534\">5.3.4: Semicolons<\/a> ( ; )<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#535\">5.3.5: Parentheses<\/a> ( )<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#536\">5.3.6: Brackets<\/a> [ ]<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#537\">5.3.7: Quotation Marks<\/a> ( \u201c \u201d )<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#538\">5.3.8: Hyphens<\/a> ( &#8211; )<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#539\">5.3.9: Long Dashes<\/a> ( \u2014 )<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#5310\">5.3.10: Question Marks<\/a> ( ? )<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#5311\">5.3.11: Exclamation Marks<\/a> ( ! )<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#5312\">5.3.12: Periods<\/a> ( . )<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><a id=\"531\"><\/a>5.3.1: Commas<\/h1>\n<p>Most punctuation problems are comma-related because of the important role commas play in providing readers with guidance on how a sentence is organized and is to be read to understand the writer\u2019s intended meaning. As we saw in <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences\/#432\">\u00a74.3.2<\/a>, commas signal to the reader where one clause ends and another begins in compound and complex sentences, but they serve several other roles as well. We use commas in four general ways, each with several variations and special cases. To these we can add rules about where not to add commas, since many writers confuse their readers by putting commas where they shouldn\u2019t go. Most style guides advocate for using as few commas as possible, though you certainly must use them wherever needed to avoid ambiguities that lead readers astray. Closely follow the sixteen rules below to guide your reader towards your intended meaning and avoid confusing them with comma misplacement.<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"crmenu\"><\/a>Quick Rules: Commas<\/h2>\n<p>Click on the rules below to see further explanations, examples, advice on what to look for when proofreading, and demonstrations of how to correct common comma errors associated with each one.<\/p>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;height: 732px;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr11\">Comma Rule 1.1<\/a><\/th>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a comma before coordinating conjunctions in compound sentences.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>The installers came to do their work at 8am<strong>, and<\/strong> the regulators came to inspect the installation by the end of the day.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 71px\">\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 71px\"><a href=\"#cr12\">Comma Rule 1.2<\/a><\/th>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 71px\"><strong>Don\u2019t put a comma between independent clauses in a compound sentence if not followed by a coordinating conjunction.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>Our main concern is patient safety; we don\u2019t want any therapeutic intervention to cause harm.<\/em> (semicolon rather than a comma after \u201csafety\u201d)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr21\">Comma Rule 2.1<\/a><\/th>\n<td style=\"width: 50%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a comma after introductory subordinate clauses, phrases, or words preceding main clauses.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em><strong>If<\/strong> we can\u2019t secure investor funding and launch the site by April, the clients will likely go elsewhere.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 55px\">\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 55px\"><a href=\"#cr22\">Comma Rule 2.2<\/a><\/th>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 55px\"><strong>Don\u2019t put a comma after main clauses followed by subordinate clauses or phrases unless the latter strikes a contrast with the former.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>They\u2019re paying us a visit <strong>because<\/strong> they haven\u2019t seen us in a while.<\/em> (no comma before \u201cbecause\u201d)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr31\">Comma Rule 3.1<\/a><\/th>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put commas around parenthetical words, phrases, or clauses.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>See my portfolio<strong>, which<\/strong> includes my best work, on ArtStation.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr32\">Comma Rule 3.2<\/a><\/th>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a comma before contrasting coordinate elements, end-of-sentence shifts, and omitted repetitions.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>He said, \u201cgo to Customer Service<strong>, not<\/strong> the checkout,\u201d <strong>didn\u2019t he?<\/strong><\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 55px\">\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 55px\"><a href=\"#cr33\">Comma Rule 3.3<\/a><\/th>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 55px\"><strong>Put a comma before sentence-ending free-modifier phrases that describe elements at the beginning or middle of sentences.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>We are putting in long hours on the report<strong>, writing frantically<\/strong>.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 55px\">\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 55px\"><a href=\"#cr34\">Comma Rule 3.4<\/a><\/th>\n<td style=\"width: 750%;height: 55px\"><strong>Put commas around higher levels of organization in dates, places, addresses, names, and numbers.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>Send your ticket to Gina Kew, <strong>RN,<\/strong> in Ottawa, <strong>Ontario,<\/strong> by Tuesday, October 9, <strong>2018,<\/strong> for your chance to win the $5,000,000 prize.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr35\">Comma Rule 3.5<\/a><\/th>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a comma between a signal phrase and a quotation.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>The reporter<strong> replied,<\/strong> \u201cYes, this is strictly off the record.\u201d<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr36\">Comma Rule 3.6<\/a><\/th>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Don\u2019t put commas around restrictive relative clauses (before that).<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>The purchased item <strong>that we agreed to return<\/strong> is now completely lost.<\/em> (no comma before \u201cthat\u201d and after \u201creturn\u201d)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 55px\">\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 55px\"><a href=\"#cr37\">Comma Rule 3.7<\/a><\/th>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 55px\"><strong>Don\u2019t put commas between subjects and their predicates.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>The just <strong>reward<\/strong> for the difficult and dangerous job that Kyle performed for his clientele <strong>was<\/strong> the knowledge that they were safe.<\/em> (no comma before \u201cwas\u201d)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr41\">Comma Rule 4.1<\/a><\/th>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put commas between each item in a series, including the last two items.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>You must be <strong>kind, conscientious,<\/strong> and <strong>caring<\/strong> in this line of work.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr42\">Comma Rule 4.2<\/a><\/th>\n<td style=\"width: 50%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put commas between two or more coordinate adjectives.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>It was a <strong>cool, crisp, bright<\/strong> autumn morning.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cr43\">Comma Rule 4.3<\/a><\/th>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Don\u2019t put a comma after the final coordinate adjective.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>The team devised a <strong>daring, ambitious<\/strong> plan.<\/em> (no comma after \u201cambitious\u201d)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 55px\">\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 55px\"><a href=\"#cr44\">Comma Rule 4.4<\/a><\/th>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 55px\"><strong>Don\u2019t put a comma between non-coordinate adjectives.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>David played his Candy Apple Red \u201957 reissue Fender Stratocaster electric guitar like he was flying a Saturn V rocket to the moon.<\/em> (no comma between the non-coordinate adjectives throughout)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 53px\">\n<th style=\"width: 30%;height: 53px\"><a href=\"#cr45\">Comma Rule 4.5<\/a><\/th>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 53px\"><strong>Don\u2019t put commas between two coordinate nouns or verbs.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>Tesla <strong>and<\/strong> Edison invented <strong>and<\/strong> patented a complete circuit of electricity distribution systems <strong>and<\/strong> consumption devices.<\/em> (no commas before any \u201cand\u201d here)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>Extended Explanations<\/h2>\n<h3><a id=\"cr11\"><\/a>Comma Rule 1.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a comma before coordinating conjunctions in compound sentences.<\/h3>\n<p>Put a comma before the <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=1566#coo\">coordinating conjunction<\/a> (e.g., and, but, so; Darling, 2014a) that joins two independent clauses in a compound sentence. A compound sentence contains two or more clauses that can stand on their own as sentences (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#t432b\/\">Table 4.3.2b<\/a> for more on compounds sentences) with a different subject in each clause.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We were having the time of our lives<strong>, and<\/strong> our lucky streak was far from over.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction \u201cand\u201d joining the independent clause beginning with the subject \u201cWe\u201d and another beginning with the subject \u201cour lucky streak.\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The first round of layoffs was welcomed by all<strong>, but<\/strong> the second devastated morale.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction \u201cbut\u201d joining the independent clause beginning with the subject \u201cThe first round\u201d and another beginning with the subject \u201cthe second.\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The management blamed external factors<strong>, yet<\/strong> none of the company\u2019s blunders would have happened under good leadership.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction \u201cyet\u201d joining the independent clause beginning with the subject \u201cThe management\u201d and another beginning with the subject \u201cnone.\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You can take advantage of this golden opportunity<strong>, or<\/strong> a thousand other investors will take advantage of it instead as soon as they know about it.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction \u201cor\u201d joining the independent clause beginning with the subject \u201cYou\u201d and another beginning with the subject \u201ca thousand.\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>He didn\u2019t see the necessity of lean principles<strong>, nor<\/strong> would they have made sense in a business model based on inefficiency.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction \u201cnor\u201d joining the independent clause beginning with the subject \u201cHe\u201d and another beginning with the subject \u201cthey.\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Market forces left them behind<strong>, for<\/strong> the law of supply and demand isn\u2019t necessarily a force for social justice.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction \u201cfor\u201d joining the independent clause beginning with the subject \u201cMarket forces\u201d and another beginning with the subject \u201cthe law.\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The competition started to heat up<strong>, so<\/strong> we did everything we could to protect our assets.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction \u201cso\u201d joining the independent clause beginning with the subject \u201cThe competition\u201d and another beginning with the subject \u201cwe.\u201d<\/p>\n<h5 style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Exception:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">If the two independent clauses are short (five words or fewer), the comma may be unnecessary.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You bring the wine and we\u2019ll make dinner.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma is unnecessary before the coordinating conjunction \u201cand\u201d joining the two short, four-word independent clauses beginning with the subjects \u201cYou\u201d and \u201cwe.\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The comma tells the reader to pause a little after one independent clause ends and before the coordinating conjunction signals that another (with a new subject) is joining it to make a compound sentence. In each of the examples sentences above, the <strong>independent clause<\/strong> on either side of the comma-conjunction combination could stand on its own as a sentence (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences\/#431\">\u00a74.3.1<\/a>&#8211;<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences\/#432\">\u00a74.3.2<\/a> for more on sentence structure and independent clauses). In the first example above, for instance, we could replace the comma and conjunction with a period, then capitalize the o in \u201cour,\u201d and both would be grammatically correct sentences. We combine them with a comma and the conjunction<em> and<\/em>, however, to clarify the relationship between the two ideas. The comma signals that these are coordinated clauses rather than noun or verb phrases.<\/p>\n<p>If the subject were the same in both clauses, however, both the comma and subject of the second clause would be unnecessary. In that case, the sentence would just be a one-subject clause with a compound predicate\u2014that is, two coordinated verbs (see <a href=\"#cr44\">Comma Rule 4.4<\/a> below). Consider the following examples:<\/p>\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We were having the time of our lives and would continue to enjoy that lucky streak.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The subject \u201cwe\u201d is the same in the independent clauses \u201cWe were having the time of our lives\u201d and \u201cwe would continue to enjoy that lucky streak,\u201d so the comma and second \u201cwe\u201d are omitted to make a compound predicate joining the verbs \u201cwere having\u201d and \u201cwould continue\u201d with the coordinating conjunction \u201cand.\u201d<\/p>\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>They won the battle but lost the war.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The subject \u201cThey\u201d is the same in the independent clauses \u201cThey won the battle\u201d and \u201cthey lost the war,\u201d so the comma and second \u201cthey\u201d are omitted to make compound predicate joining the verbs \u201cwon\u201d and \u201clost\u201d with the coordinating conjunction \u201cbut.\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for run-on sentences (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/5-2-proofreading-for-grammar#5212\/\">\u00a75.2.1.2<\/a> above), which are sentences that omit a comma before the coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses. Keep an eye out for the seven coordinating conjunctions <em><strong>f<\/strong>or, <strong>a<\/strong>nd, <strong>n<\/strong>or, <strong>b<\/strong>ut, <strong>o<\/strong>r, <strong>y<\/strong>et,<\/em> and <em><strong>s<\/strong>o<\/em> (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#t432a\/\">Table 4.3.2a<\/a> and use the mnemonic acronym <strong><em>fanboys<\/em><\/strong> to remember them). Simply add a comma before the conjunction if the independent clause on either side of the conjunction could stand on its own as a sentence because it has a subject and predicate (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#431\/\">\u00a74.3.1<\/a> for more on sentence structure).<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We were losing money with each acquisition <strong>but<\/strong> our long-term plan was total market dominance.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We were losing money with each acquisition <strong>but<span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span><\/strong> our long-term plan was total market dominance.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We were losing money with each acquisition<strong><span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span> but<\/strong> our long-term plan was total market dominance.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the example above, the coordinating conjunction \u201cbut\u201d joins the two independent clauses beginning with the subjects \u201cWe\u201d and \u201cOur long-term plan.\u201d Omitting the comma in the first example makes the sentence a run-on. Misplacing the comma after the conjunction in the second miscues the reader to pause after, rather than before, the conjunction. The easy fix is just to add the comma or move it so it goes before the conjunction.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#crmenu\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cr12\"><\/a>Comma Rule 1.2: Don\u2019t put a comma between independent clauses in a compound sentence if not followed by a coordinating conjunction.<\/h3>\n<p>Don\u2019t put a comma between two independent clauses if it\u2019s not followed by a coordinating conjunction because this is a <strong>comma splice<\/strong> sentence error (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/5-2-proofreading-for-grammar#5211\/\">\u00a75.2.1.1<\/a> above). We have two distinct ways of forming a compound sentence (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#432\/\">\u00a74.3.2<\/a> above) and a comma splice confuses the two. One way of making a compound sentence is to join independent clauses by placing a comma and one of the seven \u201cfanboys\u201d coordinating conjunctions between them (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#t432a\/\">Table 4.3.2a<\/a> for the coordinating conjunctions). Simply omitting the coordinating conjunction after the comma makes a comma splice. The other way of making a compound sentence is to end the first clause with a semicolon when it doesn\u2019t make sense to use any of the coordinating conjunctions to establish a certain relationship between the clauses (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences\/#t432b\">Table \u00a74.3.2b<\/a> on sentence varieties for more on compound sentences and <a href=\"#scr1\">Semicolon Rule 1<\/a> below). Using a comma instead of a semicolon in such compound sentences makes a comma splice.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for commas separating two independent clauses (clauses that can stand on their own as sentences because they each have a subject and predicate) without any of the seven coordinating conjunctions (<em><strong>f<\/strong>or, <strong>a<\/strong>nd, <strong>n<\/strong>or, <strong>b<\/strong>ut, <strong>o<\/strong>r, <strong>y<\/strong>et,<\/em> or <em><strong>s<\/strong>o<\/em>) following the comma.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The first proposal was from the Davidson group, the second came from a company we hadn\u2019t seen before.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The first proposal was from the Davidson group; the second came from a company we hadn\u2019t seen before.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The first proposal was from the Davidson group; <strong>but<\/strong> the second came from a company we hadn\u2019t seen before.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Though the first proposal was from the Davidson group, the second came from a company we hadn\u2019t seen before.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the incorrect example above, the comma separates two independent clauses that can stand on their own as sentences if you replaced the comma with a period and capitalized the t in \u201cthe second.\u201d You have three options for fixing the comma splice corresponding to the three examples above:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Replace the comma with a semicolon to make a compound sentence.<\/li>\n<li>Add a coordinating conjunction, such as but, to make a compound sentence that clarifies the relationship between the clauses.<\/li>\n<li>Add a subordinating conjunction, such as Though, at the beginning of the first clause to make it a dependent (a.k.a. a subordinate) clause. This makes the sentence a complex one (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#432\/\">\u00a74.3.2<\/a> above for more on subordinating conjunctions and complex sentences).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#crmenu\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cr21\"><\/a>Comma Rule 2.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a comma after introductory subordinate clauses, phrases, or words preceding main clauses.<\/h3>\n<p>Put a comma before the main clause (a.k.a. independent clause) when it is preceded by an introductory word, phrase (e.g., a prepositional or participial phrase), or subordinate clause (a.k.a. dependent clause) in a complex sentence.<\/p>\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>If<\/strong> we follow our project plan\u2019s critical path down to the minute, we will finish on time and on budget.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the subordinate clause beginning with the subordinating conjunction \u201cIf\u201d from the main clause (beginning with the subject \u201cwe\u201d) that follows it.<\/p>\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>When<\/strong> my ship comes in, I\u2019ll be repaying every favour anyone ever did for me.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction \u201cWhen,\u201d from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject \u201cI.\u201d<\/p>\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>To<\/strong> make ourselves better understood, we\u2019ve left post-it notes all around the room.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the introductory infinitive phrase, beginning with the infinitive verb \u201cTo make,\u201d from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject \u201cwe.\u201d<\/p>\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>After<\/strong> the flood, the Poulins took out some expensive disaster insurance.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the introductory prepositional phrase, beginning with the preposition \u201cafter,\u201d from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject \u201cthe Poulins.\u201d<\/p>\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Greeting<\/strong> me at the door, she said that I was a half hour early and would have to wait to see the director.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the introductory participial phrase, beginning with the present <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/participle.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">participle<\/a> (Simmons, 2001a) \u201cGreeting,\u201d from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject \u201cshe.\u201d<\/p>\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The downturn of 2008 now <strong>forgotten,<\/strong> the investors threw other people\u2019s money around like it was 2007 again.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the introductory absolute phrase, ending with the past <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/participle.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">participle<\/a> (Simmons, 2001a) \u201cforgotten,\u201d from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject \u201cthe investors.\u201d<\/p>\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Delighted,<\/strong> she accepted their offer even with the conditions.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the single-word introductory past-participle <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/appositive.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">appositive<\/a> (Simmons, 2001b) \u201cDelighted\u201d from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject \u201cshe.\u201d<\/p>\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Therefore,<\/strong> you are encouraged to submit your timesheet the Friday before payday.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the introductory <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/conjunctiveadverb.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">conjunctive adverb<\/a> (Simmons, 2007b) \u201cTherefore\u201d from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject \u201cyou.\u201d<\/p>\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>However,<\/strong> there\u2019s not much we can do if the patient refuses our help.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the introductory conjunctive adverb \u201cHowever\u201d from the main clause that follows it, beginning with the subject \u201cyou.\u201d<\/p>\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Yes,<\/strong> please go ahead and submit your payment.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma separates the single-word introductory interjection \u201cYes\u201d from the main clause imperative clause that follows it, the core of which is the verb \u201cgo.\u201d<\/p>\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Hello,<\/strong> Claude:<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks the pause between the greeting word and name address in a respectful, semiformal salutation opening email.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Exception:\u00a0<\/strong>The comma is unnecessary if the introductory dependent clause or prepositional phrase is short (fewer than four words) and its omission doesn\u2019t cause confusion.<\/p>\n<h5>Correct:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>At this point we\u2019re not accepting any applications.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> Omitting the comma after the short, three-word prepositional phrase doesn\u2019t cause confusion.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The comma tells the reader to pause a little prior to the main clause as if to say, \u201cOkay, here\u2019s where the sentence really begins with the main-clause subject and predicate.\u201d The main clause is the main point, whereas the subordinate clause that precedes it is relatively minor, providing context.<\/p>\n<p>Recall from the lesson on sentence varieties (<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#432\/\">\u00a74.3.2<\/a>) that a complex sentence is one where a <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=1566#sub\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">subordinating conjunction<\/a> (Darling, 2014a) begins an independent or subordinate clause, which cannot stand on its own as a sentence. A subordinate clause (a.k.a. dependent clause) becomes part of a proper sentence only when it joins a main (a.k.a. independent) clause. When that subordinate clause precedes the main clause, a comma separates them. The same is true when that main clause is preceded by a <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=3257\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">phrase<\/a> (e.g., prepositional, infinitive, participial, gerund, etc.; Darling, 2014b) or even just a word such as an appositive participle (as in the \u201cDelighted\u201d example above) or <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=1543#usi\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">conjunctive adverb<\/a> (Darling, 2014c), as in the \u201cTherefore\u201d example above.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for words, phrases, or clauses preceding the main clause without a comma separating them. For this, you must know how to spot the main clause when it comes later in the sentence; in other words, you need to be able to spot the main grammatical subject (the doer of the action) and predicate (the action itself; review <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#431\/\">\u00a74.3.1<\/a>\u2019s introduction to sentence structure). If the main subject is preceded by words, phrases, or clauses but not a comma, then you need to add one before the main clause.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Because<\/strong> first impressions are lasting ones you must always come out swinging at the beginning of your presentation.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Because<\/strong> first impressions are lasting ones, you must always come out swinging at the beginning of your presentation.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the example above, \u201cyou\u201d is the main grammatical subject that begins the main clause, whose main verb is \u201ccome.\u201d The subordinate clause begins with the subordinating conjunction \u201cBecause\u201d and ends at \u201cones,\u201d so the comma must follow \u201cones\u201d to separate it from the beginning of the main clause.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#crmenu\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cr22\"><\/a>Comma Rule 2.2:\u00a0 Don\u2019t put a comma after main clauses followed by subordinate clauses or phrases unless the latter strikes a contrast with the former.<\/h3>\n<p>Don\u2019t put a comma after a main clause (a.k.a. independent clause) if it is followed by a subordinate (a.k.a. dependent) clause or phrase in a complex sentence. If the subordinate clause begins with a contrasting subordinating conjunction such as \u201calthough,\u201d a comma must separate the two clauses.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You can&#8217;t apply for permits from the city\u00a0\u00a0<strong>because<\/strong> you haven&#8217;t even secured funding yet.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma is unnecessary because the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction \u201cbecause,\u201d follows the main clause rather than precedes it, so you can read it without a pause.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We will finish on time and on budget <strong>if<\/strong> we follow the critical path of our plan to the minute.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma is unnecessary because the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction \u201cif,\u201d follows the main clause rather than precedes it, so you can read it without a pause.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I\u2019ll be repaying every favour anyone ever did for me <strong>when<\/strong> my ship comes in.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma is unnecessary because the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction \u201cwhen,\u201d follows the main clause rather than precedes it, so you can read it without a pause.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The Poulins took out some expensive disaster insurance <strong>after<\/strong> the flood.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma is unnecessary because the prepositional phrase, beginning with the preposition \u201cafter,\u201d follows the main clause rather than precedes it, so you can read it without a pause.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We\u2019re not accepting any applications at this time<strong>, though<\/strong> we might make an exception for a truly remarkable applicant.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma is necessary because the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction \u201cthough,\u201d strikes a contrast with the main clause that precedes it, making a pause appropriate.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We could easily hire a new full-time assistant in the fourth quarter<strong>, unless<\/strong> our profit margin drops below 5% in the third.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma is necessary because the subordinate clause, beginning with the subordinating conjunction \u201cunless,\u201d strikes a contrast with the main clause that precedes it, making a pause appropriate.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The absence of the comma tells the reader to keep reading smoothly without pause between the main and subordinate clauses. In the case of the contrasting subordinate clause, however, the comma signals a pause as if to say that the subordinate clause is a kind of afterthought or qualification added to the main clause.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for commas unnecessarily added before subordinating conjunctions (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#t432a\/\">Table 4.3.2a<\/a> for a list of subordinating conjunctions) in complex sentences where the subordinate clause follows the main clause and doesn\u2019t strike a contrast with it.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The technician is switching to plan B<strong><span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span> because<\/strong> the manifold blew a gasket.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The technician is switching to plan B <strong>because<\/strong> the manifold blew a gasket.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The Goliath Games label was founded in 2003<strong><span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span> to<\/strong> create the most innovative and progressive interactive entertainment.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The Goliath Games label was founded in 2003 <strong>to<\/strong> create the most innovative and progressive interactive entertainment.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the examples above, the comma is simply unnecessary and should be deleted. It would be necessary, however, if the first sentence began with the subordinate clause beginning with \u201cBecause . . . \u201d or after the infinitive phrase if the second sentence began with \u201cTo create . . . .\u201d In those cases, the comma would follow \u201cgasket\u201d and \u201c2003\u201d respectively and you would change the first letter in the main clauses to lowercase.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#crmenu\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cr31\"><\/a>Comma Rule 3.1: Put commas around parenthetical words, phrases, or clauses.<\/h3>\n<p>Put commas before and after parenthetical or non-essential words, phrases, or clauses that would leave the sentence grammatically correct if you omitted them. Placed in the middle of a sentence between the subject and predicate or at the end of the sentence, however, those elements lend further detail to the words or phrases that come just before them. Commas in this way function as a lighter form of parentheses (see <a href=\"#535\">\u00a75.3.5<\/a> below).<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The promotion went to Mr. Speck<strong>, who<\/strong> neither wanted nor deserved it, to make it look like something was being done about the glass ceiling.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> Like parentheses, the commas mark off the relative clause beginning with the relative pronoun \u201cwho\u201d in the middle of the sentence, lending more information on the word coming just before (\u201cMr. Speck\u201d).<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Global Solutions went on a hiring spree<strong>, which<\/strong> was well-timed given the change in telecoms legislation that was about to come down.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks the switch to a restrictive relative clause beginning with the relative pronoun \u201cwhich\u201d after the main clause, lending more information to its final word, \u201chiring spree.\u201d The restrictive relative clause is non-essential in the sense that the main clause still means the same thing if the restrictive clause were omitted.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We\u2019ll get back to you as soon as possible<strong>, needless to say<\/strong>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks the switch to an interjection tacked onto the end of the sentence.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The second customer<strong>, on the other hand,<\/strong> absolutely loved the new colour.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks off a parenthetical prepositional phrase separating the subject from the predicate in the middle of the sentence.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The time for expressing interest in the buy-out option<strong>, however,<\/strong> had long since passed.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the conjunctive adverb \u201chowever\u201d interjected between the subject and the predicate in the middle of the sentence.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We\u2019ve heard that<strong>, in fact,<\/strong> the delegation won\u2019t be coming after all.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off a parenthetical prepositional phrase interjected between the subject and the predicate in the middle of the sentence.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Always treat the customer with respect, unless of course certain behaviours<strong>, such as belligerent drunkenness,<\/strong> compel you to take a firm stand against them.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off a parenthetical phrase offering an example interjected between the subject and the predicate in the middle of the dependent clause.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The nicest thing about you<strong>, Josh,<\/strong> is that you get the best work out of your employees by only praising achievements rather than criticizing mistakes.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off a parenthetical appositive address clarifying who \u201cyou\u201d is between the subject and the predicate in the middle of the sentence.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I sent the application to Grace Garrison<strong>, the departmental secretary,<\/strong> last Tuesday.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off a parenthetical appositive noun phrase identifying the role of the person named.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Exceptions:<\/strong>\u00a0When the appositive is so close to the noun it modifies that the sentence wouldn\u2019t make sense without it, omit the commas. Also omit commas:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Before such as when exemplifying non-parenthetically<\/li>\n<li>Around restrictive relative clauses (i.e., those beginning with that; see <a href=\"#cr36\">Comma Rule 3.6<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>If too many commas would clutter the sentence, in which case you would drop any comma that wouldn\u2019t cause confusion if omitted<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Departmental secretary Grace Garrison received the application Tuesday.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> You can omit commas around the appositive following \u201cDepartmental secretary\u201d because \u201cDepartmental secretary received the application\u201d wouldn\u2019t make sense unless \u201cThe\u201d preceded it.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>They offer competitive fringe benefits <strong>such as<\/strong> health and dental coverage, three weeks\u2019 paid vacation per year, and sick leave.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma would be excessive before the \u201csuch as\u201d phrase introducing the list of examples unless it appeared as a parenthetical aside in the middle of the sentence.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We don\u2019t have to go, and<strong> of course<\/strong> they don\u2019t have to take us.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> Adding commas around \u201cof course,\u201d though technically correct, would be excessive and look cluttered, so the parenthetical commas drop in priority to the comma separating compounded independent clauses.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>As light alternatives to parentheses, these parenthetical commas tell the reader to pause a little when a non-essential (a.k.a. parenthetical) point is interjected or tacked on to explain the word or phrase preceding it. Common parenthetical phrases include:<\/p>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">all things considered<br \/>\nas a matter of fact<br \/>\nas a result<br \/>\nas a rule<br \/>\nat the same time<br \/>\nconsequently<br \/>\nfor example<br \/>\nfurthermore<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">however<br \/>\nin addition<br \/>\nincidentally<br \/>\nin fact<br \/>\nin my opinion<br \/>\nin the first place<br \/>\nin the meantime<br \/>\nmoreover<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">needless to say<br \/>\nnevertheless<br \/>\nno doubt<br \/>\nof course<br \/>\non the contrary<br \/>\non the other hand<br \/>\ntherefore<br \/>\nunder the circumstances<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Interestingly, this rule also helped the Atlantic Canada telephone company Bell Aliant cancel a contract with Rogers Communications over the use of telephone poles prior to Rogers\u2019s intended five-year term, costing Rogers a million dollars and resulting in a bitter court battle in 2006. The dispute concerned the following sentence in the middle of the 14-page contract:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>This agreement shall be effective from the date it is made and shall continue in force for a period of five (5) years from the date it is made, and thereafter for successive five (5) year terms, unless and until terminated by one year prior notice in writing by either party.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Without the comma after \u201cterms,\u201d you could read the contract as Rogers intended, which was to say that it could be terminated with a year\u2019s notice any time after the first five years. By adding the second comma to make the \u201cand thereafter\u201d phrase parenthetical and therefore non-essential, however, Rogers in effect made the \u201cunless . . .\u201d clause apply to the first five-year term as well as to any subsequent term. That one misplaced comma thus gave Bell Aliant the right to cancel at any time.<\/p>\n<p>Citing this parenthetical comma rule, the Canadian Radio-Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) ruled in favour of Bell Aliant at Rogers\u2019s expense <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2006\/10\/25\/business\/worldbusiness\/25comma.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">(Austen, 2006)<\/a>. The CRTC later reversed its ruling when Rogers invoked the less ambiguous French version of the contract to force Aliant to return to its contractual obligations. Still, Rogers ultimately paid heavily for un-recouped losses during the contract\u2019s cancellation and in legal fees throughout the contract dispute, which dragged out till 2009 <a href=\"http:\/\/www.lawnow.org\/comma-law\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">(Bowal &amp; Layton, 2014)<\/a>. You can bet Rogers pays people to ensure its contracts are punctuated unambiguously now.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for words, phrases, or clauses that could be deleted from a sentence without making it grammatically incomplete. Add commas if none mark off the parenthetical word, phrase, or clause, or if the first is there but not the second (or vice versa) in the case of parenthetical elements ending a sentence.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Emphasizing your spoken points with gesticulation which may sound like a dirty word can certainly help your audience understand them better.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Emphasizing your spoken points with gesticulation<strong>, which may sound like a dirty word,<\/strong> can certainly help your audience understand them better.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Here, the non-essential parenthetical relative clause beginning with the non-restrictive relative pronoun which (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-4-forming-effective-paragraphs#t442a\/\">Table 4.4.2a<\/a>, #7, for relative pronouns) and ending with \u201cword,\u201d could be deleted from the sentence and leave it grammatically complete. However, as an interjection, it clarifies the word that precedes it (\u201cgesticulation\u201d), and therefore has a place in the sentence, albeit one set apart from the rest.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Let\u2019s start cooking Grandpa!<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Let\u2019s start cooking<strong>, Grandpa!<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n<p>Here, the comma is crucial in signalling that Grandpa is being addressed. Without the comma, the sentence recommends preparing Grandpa to be cooked and presumably eaten, which is hopefully not the intended meaning.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#crmenu\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cr32\"><\/a>Comma Rule 3.2: Put a comma before contrasting coordinate elements, end-of-sentence shifts, and omitted repetitions.<\/h3>\n<p>Put commas before end-of-sentence:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Questions<\/strong> that seek confirmation of the main-clause point by asking the opposite<\/li>\n<li><strong>Phrases<\/strong> that begin with not and state what the main-clause point seeks to correct<\/li>\n<li><strong>Coordinate elements<\/strong> that contrast or further extend the main-clause point<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>This presentation seems like it\u2019s gone on for days<strong>, doesn\u2019t it?<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks off the question added to the end of the sentence to ask whether the opposite of the main-clause point is true as a way of seeking agreement with it.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Please send the document to Accounts Receivable<strong>, not Payable<\/strong>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks off the contrasting element added to the end, abbreviating the clause \u201cdo not send the document to Accounts Payable,\u201d which has the exact structure of the main clause, but shows only the words that differ from the main-clause wording rather than repeating most of it to make a compound sentence.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The potential we envision for AI is that it will at best bring a world of convenience and leisure<strong>, at worst<\/strong> total annihilation.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks off the clause that states the complementary contrast to the first statement by omitting the repeated relative clause root \u201cit will . . . bring.\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The president\u2019s statement to the media seemed incoherent<strong>, even demented.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks off the clause that extends the main clause statement assuming the same root structure.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The comma cues the reader to pause before the sentence shifts to contrasting elements, as well as to indicate that some phrasing from the first part of the sentence is being assumed rather than repeated in the second.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for run-on-like gaps where no punctuation separates the main clause from questions or contrasting phrases tacked on to the end of a sentence, and add the comma.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>This is a great time to be alive isn\u2019t it?<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>This is a great time to be alive<strong><span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span> isn\u2019t it?<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n<p>Here, the main clause ends with \u201calive,\u201d and the follow-up recasting of the statement as an interrogative sentence (\u201cisn\u2019t this the best time to be alive?\u201d) abbreviated as \u201cisn\u2019t it?\u201d forms a run-on without any punctuation separating it from the main clause. The comma added between the clauses represents the words that were omitted to avoid repetition.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#crmenu\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cr33\"><\/a>Comma Rule 3.3: Put a comma before sentence-ending free-modifier phrases that describe elements at the beginning or middle of sentences.<\/h3>\n<p>Put commas before phrases that appear at the end of a sentence but modify (describe) actions or things at the sentence\u2019s beginning or middle. As long as such phrases don\u2019t cause confusion with their ambiguity, they are free to either follow the noun they modify or appear at the end.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The MC desperately cued for applause<strong>, clapping aggressively<\/strong>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma marks off the sentence-ending participial phrase starting with the present participle \u201cclapping\u201d describes the action \u201ccued\u201d in the middle of the sentence.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The comma signals to the reader that the phrase ending the sentence refers to something that came earlier in the sentence. Without a comma, the phrase would describe what came immediately before it.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for phrases (especially participial phrases\u2014words ending -ing) at the end of sentences without commas preceding them but not making sense. If they indeed have commas preceding them but the participle could refer to more than one thing in the main clause, resolve the ambiguity by moving the phrase closer to the thing it modifies.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The bellhop held out his hand for a gratuity smiling obsequiously.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The bellhop held out his hand for a gratuity<strong><span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span> smiling obsequiously.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n<p>Here, the omitted comma makes it seem like the gratuity is smiling obsequiously, which doesn\u2019t make sense. Adding the comma before \u201csmiling\u201d makes it clear that the bellhop mentioned earlier in the sentence is the one smiling.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The MC invited the plenary speaker to the stage<strong><span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span> bowing graciously.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Bowing graciously<span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span><\/strong> the MC invited the plenary speaker to the stage.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The participial phrase is ambiguous when placed at the end of the sentence because it\u2019s unclear whether the MC or plenary speaker is bowing graciously. Moving the participial phrase to the beginning so that it is in appositive relation to the noun it modifies clarifies the sentence to say that the MC is bowing.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#crmenu\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cr34\"><\/a>Comma Rule 3.4: Put commas around higher levels of organization in dates, places, addresses, names, and numbers.<\/h3>\n<p>Put commas around the:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Year when preceded by a month and date<\/li>\n<li>Date when preceded by a day of the week<\/li>\n<li>Larger geographical region (e.g., province, state, country, etc.) when preceded by smaller one (e.g., city or town) in a sentence or long address line<\/li>\n<li>Title or credential (e.g., ND, MD, PhD) following a name<\/li>\n<li>Groups of thousands in large numbers<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The release date of April 14<strong>, 2019,<\/strong> will be honoured if there are no delays.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the year as parenthetical in the three-part date to ensure that there is no ambiguity about which April 14 (2018? 2020?) is intended.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We agreed to continue our meeting on Thursday<strong>, January 28,<\/strong> to cover the agenda items we didn\u2019t get to on Monday.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the calendar date as parenthetical after the day of the week to ensure that there is no ambiguity about which Thursday is intended.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Gord Downie was born in Amherstview<strong>, Ontario,<\/strong> to a traveling salesman father and stay-at-home mother.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the province as parenthetical after the smaller town to ensure that there is no ambiguity about which town is intended, assuming other towns in other provinces may share the same name.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Bowie was born David Robert Jones in London<strong>, England,<\/strong> on 8 January 1947.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the country as parenthetical after the city within it to ensure that there is no ambiguity about which city is intended (i.e., not the one in Ontario, Canada).<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Send your inquiries to 1385 Woodroffe Avenue<strong>, Ottawa,<\/strong> ON \u00a0K26 1V8.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the larger geographical region in which the street is situated.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Please welcome Daria Rimini<strong>, RN,<\/strong> to the department.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the person\u2019s credentials as non-essential to her name rather than initials in her name.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Send your inquiries to Albert Irwin<strong>, Jr.,<\/strong> at the email address below.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the generational tag following the name.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You can always trust old George Wilson<strong>, Professor of English,<\/strong> to make a mountain of a molehill. <\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off the individual\u2019s professional title following their name.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The awards for damages ranged anywhere from a token <strong>$4,882<\/strong> to a whopping <strong>$13,945,718<\/strong>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The commas mark off every group of thousand (three digits) to help the reader quickly recognize the magnitude of the number without counting the number of digits.<\/p>\n<h5 style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Exceptions:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Don\u2019t surround a year with commas if it follows only a month; use them only around years following a month and date. Also, drop the second comma if the larger geographical region is possessive in form.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Recording began in November 2005 and continued to February 2006.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> Commas are unnecessary in general two-part dates.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The charm of London<strong>, Ontario\u2019s<\/strong> street buskers almost rivals that of its UK namesake.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma following the possessive form of the larger geographical region would look even more awkward than this. Of course, the sentence could be reworded as \u201cThe street buskers\u2019 charm in London, Ontario, almost . . . .\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The commas tell the reader to pause a little within a detailed series of time, geographical, or name designations when adding a higher order of organization just as commas were used as light alternatives to parentheses in <a href=\"#cr31\">Comma Rule 3.1<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for years added to three-part dates, larger geographical regions added after cities and towns, or credentials added after names with either no comma added on either side of that year, region, or credential, or added only before it but not after. Add both or the second comma. If the date only has the month and year, but a comma or two surrounds the date, delete commas.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We can probably fit you in for the procedure on Tuesday December 12.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We can probably fit you in for the procedure on Tuesday<strong><span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span> December 12<\/strong>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Here, the month and date follow the day of the week without a comma. Just add one between them.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>They moved the release date to March 14<strong>, 2020<\/strong> to allow enough time for post-production.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>They moved the release date to March 14<strong><span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span> 2020<span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span><\/strong> to allow enough time for post-production.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Here, the year gets the first of its two parenthetical commas but not the second, so just add one after the year.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The company was founded in July<strong><span style=\"color: #993300\">, <\/span>1978<span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span><\/strong> to address an urgent need.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The company was founded in July 1978 to address an urgent need.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">The commas around the year are unnecessary because it\u2019s only a two-part date. Just delete them.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#531\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cr35\"><\/a>Comma Rule 3.5: Put a comma between a signal phrase and a quotation.<\/h3>\n<p>Put commas between signal phrases and the quotations they introduce when the signal phrases end with a verb that gives rise to the quoted words or thoughts.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The chair of the meeting <strong>shouted<span style=\"color: #000000\">,<\/span><\/strong> \u201cWe cannot proceed unless we have order.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma separates the signal phrase ending with a verb from the quotation it introduces.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>\u201cStay the course,\u201d the supervisor <strong>advised,<\/strong> \u201cand you shall soon find success.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The parenthetical commas mark off the signal phrase interjected between quoted clauses.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You could tell she was<strong> thinking,<\/strong> \u201cIs this guy for real?\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma separates the signal phrase ending with a verb from the quotation it introduces even if the quotation is merely thought rather than said.<\/p>\n<h5 style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Exception:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">A comma is unnecessary if the signal phrase ends with the restrictive relative pronoun <em>that<\/em> or the quotation is a phrase incorporated into the sentence rather than a sentence or clause on its own.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The customer service rep said <strong>that<\/strong> \u201cThe offer expired on August 23, not the 24th\u201d and they have a \u201cno exceptions\u201d policy due to the perishable nature of the product.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The signal phrase ends with the restrictive relative pronoun that, which a comma doesn\u2019t follow but could replace, and \u201cno exceptions is a phrase rather than a clause or sentence.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The customer service representative confirmed \u201cAugust 23, not the 24\u201d was the expiration date.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> No comma follows the signal phrase because the quotation is just a phrase excerpt rather than a clause or sentence.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The comma cues the reader to pause as it abbreviates the relative pronoun that, which makes the comma unnecessary if it\u2019s included.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for missing commas around quotations and add them between the signal phrase ending with a verb and the quotation, or look for unnecessary commas that split a sentence unnaturally, such as going before or after the that that precedes a quotation if present), and delete them.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The authorization <strong>said \u201cGo<\/strong> for it.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The authorization <strong>said<span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span> \u201cGo<\/strong> for it.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Here, the signal phrase omits a comma between the main verb and the quotation, so adding one corrects the error.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The current contract says clearly <strong>that<span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span> \u201covertime<\/strong> is time and a half.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The current contract says clearly <strong>that \u201covertime<\/strong> is time and a half.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Here, a comma unnecessarily follows the relative pronoun that perhaps because the writer thought that a comma should always precede the quotation. You could either delete the comma or \u201cthat,\u201d but not both.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#531\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cr36\"><\/a>Comma Rule 3.6: Don\u2019t put commas around restrictive relative clauses (before that).<\/h3>\n<p>Don\u2019t put a comma before a restrictive relative clause (e.g., beginning with the relative pronoun <em>who<\/em> or <em>that<\/em>) following a main clause.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The stocks that we all thought were going to offer the best returns are doing the worst.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> No commas surround the restrictive clause from \u201cthat\u201d to \u201creturns,\u201d which is somewhat parenthetical in that the sentence could grammatically function without it (\u201cThe stocks are doing the worst\u201d). However, this would be misleading because it implies that all the stocks are failing expectations, whereas the sentence focuses on only a subset. The vagueness resulting from omitting the restrictive clause proves that it is essential to the sentence\u2019s clarity.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The students who presented first set the bar high for those who followed.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> No commas surround the restrictive clause from \u201cwho\u201d to \u201cfirst.\u201d The clause is restrictive because it specifies a small group of students. Adding commas around the clause would make it non-restrictive (see <a href=\"#cr31\">Comma Rule 3.1<\/a> above) and would change the meaning of the sentence: it would mean that all the students presented first.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>She didn\u2019t say that we couldn\u2019t work together.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> No comma precedes the restrictive clause beginning with \u201cthat.\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The absence of the comma tells the reader that the relative clause starting with the relative pronoun that or who is essential to the meaning of the sentence and should be read smoothly without pauses around it. For more on restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses, see <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/645\/1\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Introduction and General Usage in Defining Clauses<\/a> (Keck &amp; Angeli, 2018) and <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=3745\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Clauses<\/a> (Darling, 2014d).<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for commas preceding <em>that<\/em> or <em>who<\/em> and determine whether the meaning of the sentence would be significantly changed if you deleted the restrictive relative clause. If it would be, delete the commas.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You don\u2019t have to cite common-knowledge facts<strong><span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span> that<\/strong> every source you can find agrees on.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You don\u2019t have to cite common-knowledge facts that every source you can find agrees on.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Here, the restrictive relative clause beginning with <em>that<\/em> is essential to the meaning because it clarifies what kind of facts are common knowledge. It is not interchangeable with the non-restrictive relative clause beginning with <em>which<\/em>, which requires a comma before it because it is non-essential (see <a href=\"#\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Comma Rule 3.1<\/a> above). In the UK, writers often use \u201cwhich\u201d instead of \u201cthat\u201d even in non-restrictive relative clauses without the comma preceding them. In North America, however, we distinguish the relative clause types by using a comma and <em>which<\/em> for non-restrictive clauses and <em>that<\/em> without a comma for restrictive clauses.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The students<strong><span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span> who<\/strong> were caught plagiarizing<span style=\"color: #000000\">, <\/span>were each given a zero, whereas the rest did quite well.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The students who were caught plagiarizing were each given a zero, whereas the rest did quite well.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Here, the commas in the incorrect sentence say that all students were caught plagiarizing. Deleting the commas to make \u201cwho were caught plagiarizing\u201d a restrictive relative clause brings the sentence back to the intended meaning, which is that a subset of students were caught plagiarizing and the rest did well.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#531\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cr37\"><\/a>Comma Rule 3.7: Don\u2019t put commas between subjects and their predicates.<\/h3>\n<p>Don\u2019t put a comma between a clause\u2019s subject (even if it\u2019s a long one) and predicate (the main verb action) if there are no parenthetical elements between them.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Participants who quit smoking because of the new treatment option were twice as likely to remain smoke-free as those who quit cold turkey.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> No comma separates the subject \u201cParticipants who . . . option\u201d from the predicate \u201cwere . . . turkey\u201d even though the subject is quite long at ten words.<\/p>\n<h5 style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Exception:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Adding a pair of commas between the subject and predicate is acceptable when they are divided by an interjection. See the fourth and fifth correct examples illustrating <a href=\"#cr31\">Comma Rule 3.1<\/a>).<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The absence of the comma tells the reader to read smoothly across the subject and predicate because they are the integral parts of a unified clause even if the subject is long.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for commas that separate the subject from the predicate when there are no parenthetical words or phrases, or non-restrictive clauses, separating them. For this, you must know how to spot the main-clause subject and predicate (review <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#431\/\">\u00a74.3.1<\/a> on sentence structure) and delete any stray commas that come between them.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>All the businesses that benefitted from the new regulatory environment following the passing of Bill 134, have given back to their community.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>All the business that benefitted from the new regulatory environment following the passing of Bill 134 have given back to their community.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The subject of the above sentence is a long one because, following the core noun \u201cbusinesses,\u201d it contains a restrictive relative clause beginning with <em>that<\/em>, which contains prepositional phrases (\u201cfrom the new . . .\u201d and \u201cof Bill 134\u201d) and a participial phrase (\u201cfollowing . . .\u201d). None of these length-extending units change the fact that there is no legitimate parenthetical interjection requiring commas between the subject and the predicate that begins with \u201chave given.\u201d The easy fix is just to delete the comma.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#531\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cr41\"><\/a>Comma Rule 4.1: Put commas between each item in a series, including the last two items.<\/h3>\n<p>Put commas between each item in a series, including before the <em>and<\/em> or <em>or<\/em> that separates the second-to-last (a.k.a. penultimate) and last items, whether those items be words, phrases, or even clauses in a series.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>NASA sent the space shuttles Columbia<strong>,<\/strong> Challenger<strong>,<\/strong> Discovery<strong>,<\/strong> Atlantis<strong>,<\/strong> <strong>and<\/strong> Endeavour on 135 orbital missions from 1982 to 2011.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma follows each noun in a series up to the penultimate one before the and joining the last two.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I gave them the option of either researching the content<strong>,<\/strong> preparing the PowerPoint<strong>, or<\/strong> doing the actual presentation.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma follows each participial phrase in a series up to the penultimate one before the or joining the last two.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The presenters rehearsed before Week 5<strong>,<\/strong> during Reading Week<strong>,<\/strong> <strong>and<\/strong> again after Week 7.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma follows each prepositional phrase in a series up to the penultimate one before the and joining the last two.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Mick Jagger and Keith Richards set the stage for other singer-guitarist power duos like Robert Plant and Jimmy Page<strong>,<\/strong> Freddie Mercury and Brian May<strong>,<\/strong> Steven Tyler and Joe Perry<strong>,<\/strong> Axl Rose and Slash, <strong>and<\/strong> Anthony Kiedis and John Frusciante.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> A comma follows each compound noun phrase in a series up to the penultimate one before the and joining the last two pairs.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I can\u2019t stand comma splices<strong>,<\/strong> you have no patience for run-ons<strong>, and<\/strong> she won\u2019t tolerate sentence fragments.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> In a compound sentence containing three independent clauses, a comma follows each clause up to the penultimate one before the <em>and<\/em> joining the last two.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The serial commas help separate each item in the series, and the one that comes before the coordinating conjunction and that joins the last two items (a.k.a. the \u201cOxford comma\u201d), helps resolve various ambiguities that may arise without it (see some below). The question of whether to use the Oxford comma has been a long-running debate. Some style guides, such as the Canadian Press, Associated Press, and even institutions like Algonquin College, recommend omitting it because they advocate for as few commas as possible. However, they say nothing about situations where omitting the Oxford comma creates unavoidable ambiguity\u2014that is, two interpretations that mean two very different things. The anti-Oxford comma side even has an anthem in the Grammy-winning indie band Vampire Weekend\u2019s 2008 debut-album single \u201cOxford Comma,\u201d which opens with the lyric \u201cWho gives a f**k about the Oxford comma?\u201d.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Vampire Weekend - Oxford Comma\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/P_i1xk07o4g?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>However, grammarians, readers, and writers who care about clarity in writing, and even the plaintiffs awarded $5 million in a US civil suit (as well as the defendants paying the price) certainly care about the Oxford comma. The significant confusion and even conflict that results from its absence in clutch situations justifies its inclusion in all. For instance:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>In a 2017-2018 civil case that went nearly as far as the US Supreme Court, Oakhurst Dairy of Portland, Maine, was ordered to pay its delivery drivers $5 million due to the ambiguity caused by an omitted Oxford comma in state law. The law was soon amended to separate the last two items in a list of overtime pay exemptions to resolve the ambiguity <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/02\/09\/us\/oxford-comma-maine.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">(Victor, 2018)<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>The inclusion or omission of the Oxford comma leads to two entirely different interpretations when names are listed. If you were to say, for instance, that you and two others must go to court, you would say, \u201cBeth, Ian, and I must go to court.\u201d Without the Oxford comma, however, you would be addressing Beth (who now isn\u2019t going to court) to tell her that just you and Ian are going: \u201cBeth, Ian and I must go to court,\u201d which is not what you originally meant.<\/li>\n<li>Appositive relations between items in a series also create ambiguities when omitting the Oxford comma. If an actor winning a big award in front of a national audience were to say, \u201cI would like to thank my parents, God and Buffy Sainte-Marie,\u201d the absence of an Oxford comma makes \u201cGod and Buffy Sainte-Marie\u201d appear to be an appositive noun phrase modifying \u201cparents\u201d\u2014that is, she would imply that her parents are God and Buffy Sainte-Marie. By using the Oxford comma, she avoids this absurdity by thanking three entities: her parents, God, and Buffy Sainte-Marie\u2014as intended.<\/li>\n<li>Omitting the Oxford comma is especially confusing if the items listed are a combination of paired and single items. If the list of pairs in the fourth correct example above omitted the Oxford comma, it would end with the absurdity of having the last four items appearing as singles with \u201cand\u201d awkwardly separating each: \u201c. . . Steven Tyler <strong>and<\/strong> Joe Perry, Axl Rose <strong>and<\/strong> Slash <strong>and<\/strong> Anthony Kiedis <strong>and<\/strong> John Frusciante.\u201d Knowing the context of these pairings would help resolve the ambiguity, but if you were reading a list of unknown mixed single and paired items, you wouldn\u2019t know which was a single and which was a pair near the end without the Oxford comma. A list such as \u201cA, B and C, D, E and F, G, H, I, J and K and L\u201d would be ambiguous because you wouldn\u2019t know if the last three items paired J with K (and L is single) or K with L (and J is single).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>If the Oxford comma is necessary to avoid ambiguity in such cases, it should be used as a rule in <em>all<\/em> cases. Writers shouldn\u2019t have to make a subjective judgment call about whether the reader would find it ambiguous with or without the Oxford comma because some readers are more astute than others. Except perhaps in titles where brevity is highly valued and no ambiguities of the kind listed above can confuse the reader, the Oxford comma should <em>always<\/em> be used.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for list of three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence. If you don\u2019t see a comma before the <em>and<\/em> that separates the last two items, add one there.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Our group is full of non-contributors, my friend and me.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Our group is full of non-contributors<span style=\"color: #000080\"><strong>,<\/strong><\/span> my friend<strong><span style=\"color: #000080\">,<\/span> and<\/strong> me.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Omitting the Oxford comma in the incorrect example above suggests that you and your friend are non-contributors because \u201cmy friend and me\u201d are in appositive relation to \u201cnon-contributors.\u201d Though you did not mean to say this, you are in effect offering yourself and your friend as particular examples of non-contributors. By adding the Oxford comma, however, you now say that the group is comprised of you, your friend, and some non-contributors. With the Oxford comma, you and your friend are productive members rather than non-contributors despite being grouped with them.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#531\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cr42\"><\/a>Comma Rule 4.2: Put commas between two or more coordinate adjectives.<\/h3>\n<p>Put commas between two or more coordinate adjectives that refer to the same noun. <strong>Coordinate adjectives<\/strong> are those stacked in front of a noun in no particular order to describe the noun in multiple ways. You can tell that they\u2019re coordinate adjectives if you can (1) change their order and (2) add <em>and<\/em> between each without changing the meaning either way.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The new hires turned out to be dedicated<strong>,<\/strong> ambitious employees.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> Both adjectives, \u201cdedicated\u201d and \u201cambitious,\u201d describe the noun \u201cemployees\u201d in no particular order, and you can replace the comma with an and to make \u201c. . . dedicated and ambitious employees.\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Would you like a nice<strong>,<\/strong> new<strong>,<\/strong> clean<strong>,<\/strong> dry diaper?<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> All four coordinate adjectives describe the noun \u201cdiaper\u201d in no particular order.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The incessant, thunderous drum beat changed the rhythm of their hearts.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma goes between \u201cincessant\u201d and \u201cthunderous\u201d because they are coordinate. The comma doesn\u2019t go between \u201cthunderous\u201d and \u201cdrum\u201d because they are non-coordinate in that you can\u2019t change their order and add and between them without changing the meaning.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Use SMS for brief<strong>,<\/strong> fast text message exchanges.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma goes between \u201cbrief\u201d and \u201cfast\u201d because they are coordinate. The comma doesn\u2019t go after \u201cfast,\u201d \u201ctext,\u201d or \u201cmessage\u201d because they are non-coordinate in that you can\u2019t change their order and add<em> and<\/em> between them without changing the meaning.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The commas distinguish coordinate from non-coordinate adjectives, and therefore what adjectives are incidental and which are intrinsic qualities of the noun they describe. For more, see <a href=\"http:\/\/www.write.com\/writing-guides\/general-writing\/punctuation\/mastering-the-art-of-comma-usage\/commas-coordinate-adjectives\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Commas: Coordinate Adjectives<\/a> (Write, 2012) and <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/handouts\/commatip06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Comma Tip 6: Use Commas Correctly with a Series of Adjectives<\/a> (Simmons, 2018a).<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for a series of two or more adjectives preceding a noun without commas between them. If you can put and between them <em>and<\/em> change their order without changing the meaning of the sentence, they\u2019re coordinate adjectives that need commas between them.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The day started off with a vicious unrelenting freezing rain.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The day started off with a vicious, unrelenting freezing rain.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The only adjectives that could be swapped around and have <em>and<\/em> added between them are \u201cvicious\u201d and \u201cunrelenting.\u201d The adjective \u201cfreezing\u201d is locked in its position before the noun \u201crain\u201d to mean the type of rain that makes the outside one huge ice rink. Therefore, you need to add a comma between \u201cvicious\u201d and \u201cunrelenting,\u201d but not between \u201cunrelenting\u201d and \u201cfreezing.\u201d<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#531\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cr43\"><\/a>Comma Rule 4.3: Don\u2019t put a comma after the final coordinate adjective.<\/h3>\n<p>Don\u2019t put a comma after the second of two (or third of three, etc.) coordinate adjectives\u2014i.e., between the final coordinate adjective and the noun it describes. See <a href=\"#cr42\">Comma Rule 4.2<\/a> above for a further explanation of coordinate <em>vs.<\/em> non-coordinate adjectives.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for coordinate adjectives preceding a noun with commas between them. If you can put <em>and<\/em> between them and change their order without changing the meaning of the sentence, they\u2019re coordinate adjectives that need commas between them.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Select and use common, basic, information technology tools to support communication.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Select and use common, basic information technology tools to support communication.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The only adjectives that could be swapped around and have and added between them are \u201ccommon\u201d and \u201cbasic.\u201d In this case, \u201cinformation technology\u201d (a.k.a. \u201cIT\u201d) is a noun phrase that modifies the noun \u201ctools,\u201d so their order is locked in, making them non-coordinate.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#531\">Return to Quick Rules: Commas<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cr44\"><\/a>Comma Rule 4.4: Don\u2019t put a comma between non-coordinate adjectives.<\/h3>\n<p>Don\u2019t put commas between non-coordinate adjectives\u2014that is, between adjectives that are in a fixed order before the noun they modify and cannot have <em>and<\/em> added between them without changing the meaning of the sentence. See <a href=\"#cr42\">Comma Rule 4.2<\/a> above for a further explanation of coordinate vs. non-coordinate adjectives.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for coordinate adjectives preceding a noun with commas between them. If you can\u2019t put<em> and<\/em> between them and change their order without changing the meaning of the sentence, they\u2019re non-coordinate adjectives. Any commas between them must be deleted.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Send the black<span style=\"color: #993300\"><strong>,<\/strong><\/span> Pearl<span style=\"color: #993300\"><strong>,<\/strong><\/span> drum kit to the heavy<span style=\"color: #993300\"><strong>,<\/strong> <\/span>metal drummer.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Send the black Pearl drum kit to the heavy metal drummer.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The order is important in the first set of non-coordinate adjectives describing the noun \u201ckit\u201d because the type of kit we\u2019re dealing with is a drum kit, so \u201cdrum\u201d must come immediately before \u201ckit.\u201d The brand of drum kit is Pearl (capitalized because it is a proper noun), so \u201cPearl\u201d precedes \u201cdrum kit.\u201d The only adjective preceding these non-coordinate adjectives is \u201cblack,\u201d but it is unaccompanied by another to make it a coordinate adjective, so there are no commas. Likewise, inserting a comma between \u201cheavy\u201d and \u201cmetal\u201d splits the musical genre \u201cheavy metal\u201d serving as a non-coordinate adjective to \u201cdrummer,\u201d so it misleadingly implies that the drummer is a 400kg led statue.<\/p>\n<h3><a id=\"cr45\"><\/a>Comma Rule 4.5:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Don\u2019t put commas between two coordinate nouns or verbs.<\/h3>\n<p>Don\u2019t put commas between two nouns (or noun phrases) or verbs (or verb phrases) joined by the coordinating conjunction <em>and<\/em> in a compound subject, predicate, or object.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for commas appearing before or after the coordinating conjunction <em>and<\/em> when it comes between nouns (or noun phrases) or verbs (or verb phrases), then delete them.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The communications director from your company<span style=\"color: #993300\"><strong>,<\/strong><\/span> <strong>and<\/strong> the same from our company met to discuss a common strategy.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The communications director from your company, <strong>and<\/strong> the same from our company met to discuss a common strategy.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This above sentence features a <strong>compound subject<\/strong>, meaning that two subjects (the two communications directors) perform the main action (\u201cmet\u201d). Though each is followed by a prepositional phrase (\u201cfrom . . .\u201d), the comma between them must be deleted in the incorrect sentence to avoid impeding the reader.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>They applied for an extension<span style=\"color: #993300\"><strong>,<\/strong><\/span> <strong>and<\/strong> worked all weekend on the report.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>They applied for an extension <strong>and<\/strong> worked all weekend on the report.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The sentence above has a <strong>compound predicate<\/strong>, meaning that the one subject (\u201cThey\u201d) performed two actions (\u201capplied\u201d and \u201cworked\u201d). Again, the comma is unnecessary between them and must be deleted from the incorrect sentence. The comma would be necessary if the second verb had a different subject performing the action, in which case they would be two independent clauses in a compound sentence (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#t432b\">Table 4.3.2b<\/a> and <a href=\"#cr11\">Comma Rule 1.1<\/a>).<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>They can\u2019t expect us to write both the report and memo<span style=\"color: #993300\"><strong>,<\/strong><\/span> <strong>and<\/strong> not pay us.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>They can\u2019t expect us to write both the report and memo <strong>but<\/strong> not pay us.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The above sentence also has a <strong>compound predicate<\/strong> (\u201ccan\u2019t expect\u201d and \u201cnot pay\u201d). Adding a comma makes this out to be a compound sentence, which it isn\u2019t because the subject \u201cThey\u201d is common to both actions. To avoid an \u201cX and Y and Z\u201d structure caused by having a compound object (\u201creport and memo\u201d) appearing just before the conjunction coordinating the second verb, the \u201cand\u201d joining the two verb phrases can simply be changed to \u201cbut.\u201d<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The teacher gave us a new deadline based on the revised schedule<strong><span style=\"color: #993300\">,<\/span> and<\/strong> a slightly revised end-of-semester timeline.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The teacher gave us a new deadline based on the revised schedule <strong>and<\/strong> a slightly revised end-of-semester timeline.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The above sentences have a <strong>compound object<\/strong>, meaning that two objects (\u201cdeadline\u201d and \u201ctimeline\u201d) are acted upon by the verb \u201cgave.\u201d The objects here are in somewhat long noun phrases, but to add a comma between them (after \u201dschedule\u201d) would mislead the reader into thinking that this is a compound sentence with a new independent clause following \u201cand.\u201d Deleting the comma would ensure that the reader understands the sentence instead as a simple sentence with a compound object.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#531\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Commas<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n<p>For more on commas, see the following resources:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=898\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Guide to Grammar and Writing\u2019s Commas page<\/a>, which includes a Comma Usage PowerPoint presentation and a <a href=\"http:\/\/www.dactivity.com\/activity\/index.aspx?content=2hG0rTLT2r\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Commas exercise<\/a> (click on the image to the right; Darling, 2014e)<\/li>\n<li>Purdue OWL\u2019s <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/607\/02\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Extended Rules for Using Commas<\/a> (Driscoll &amp; Brizee, 2018) along with its <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/exercises\/3\/5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Punctuation Exercises: Commas<\/a> (Purdue OWL, 2010).<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/comma.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Punctuation Guide\u2019s Comma page<\/a> (Penn, 2011a)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/commas.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Grammar Book\u2019s Commas page<\/a> and its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/commas_1.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Commas Quiz 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/commas_2.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Commas Quiz 2<\/a> (Straus, 2018a)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the <strong>Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n<h1><a id=\"532\"><\/a>5.3.2: Apostrophes<\/h1>\n<p>Apostrophes are mainly used to indicate possession and contraction but are probably the most misplaced punctuation mark after commas. They can embarrass the writer who misuses them, show a lack of attention to detail, and confuse readers about whether a noun is singular or plural, possessive, a contraction, or just a misspelling. Used properly, apostrophes at the end of a noun cue readers that the noun following is possessed by what the noun preceding refers to. For instance, in &#8220;Uncle Tom&#8217;s cabin,&#8221; the apostrophe indicates that the cabin (noun) is owned by Uncle Tom. Placement of apostrophes before or after the\u00a0<em>s<\/em> ending a word determines if the noun is plural or singular. They&#8217;re also used for contractions in informal writing such as you see at the beginning of this sentence. You have four main rules to follow when using apostrophes, as well as several special cases.<b><\/b><\/p>\n<h2>Quick Rules: Apostrophes<b><\/b><\/h2>\n<p>Click on the rules below to see further explanations, examples, advice on what to look for when proofreading, and demonstrations of how to correct common apostrophe errors associated with each one.<\/p>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#ar11\">Apostrophe Rule 1.1<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put an apostrophe before the <em>s<\/em> ending a singular possessive noun.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em><strong>Jenna\u2019s goal<\/strong> is to find a money manager who can diversify her portfolio.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#ar12\">Apostrophe Rule 1.2<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong><a id=\"ar11\"><\/a>Don\u2019t put an apostrophe at the end of a simple plural noun.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>Corben put on his glasses to see the looks on their faces.\u00a0<\/em>(no apostrophe at the end of \u201cglasses,\u201d \u201clooks,\u201d or &#8220;faces&#8221;).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#ar21\">Apostrophe Rule 2.1<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put an apostrophe after the <em>s<\/em> ending a plural possessive noun.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>All three <strong>companies\u2019<\/strong> bids for the contract were rejected.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#ar22\">Apostrophe Rule 2.2<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Don\u2019t put an apostrophe before the <em>s<\/em> ending a non-possessive plural decade.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>The corporation was in the black back in the <strong>1940s<\/strong>.<\/em> (no apostrophe between the <em>0<\/em> and <em>s<\/em> in \u201c1940s\u201d)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#ar3\">Apostrophe Rule 3<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put an apostrophe where letters are omitted in contractions.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em><strong>You\u2019re<\/strong> saying that <strong>it\u2019s<\/strong> not a mistake if <strong>they\u2019re<\/strong> doing it twice?<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#ar4\">Apostrophe Rule 4<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put an apostrophe before a plural s following single letters<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>Mind your <strong>p\u2019s<\/strong> and <strong>q\u2019s<\/strong>, son.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>Extended Explanations<\/h2>\n<h3><a><\/a>Apostrophe Rule 1.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put an apostrophe before the <em>s<\/em> ending a singular possessive noun.<\/h3>\n<p>Put an apostrophe before the <em>s<\/em> added to the end of a singular noun when the noun or noun phrase following belongs to the noun preceding it. In the case of joint ownership in compound nouns (when two or more nouns have joint possession of the noun following), the apostrophe-<em>s<\/em> goes only at the end of the second or final noun.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Have you heard the story of Albert <strong>Einstein\u2019s<\/strong> brain?<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The brain belongs to Einstein (singular), so the apostrophe and s indicate possession.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Grace <strong>Jones\u2019s<\/strong> formidable presence in <strong>1985\u2019s<\/strong> A View to a Kill electrified audiences.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The \u201cformidable presence\u201d belongs to Grace Jones. Though her name ends with an <em>s<\/em>, she is grammatically singular and therefore receives an apostrophe and <em>s<\/em> just like any other singular noun. The apostrophe and <em>s<\/em> are also added to the end of years to indicate that the noun following (in this case a James Bond film) occurred in that year.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I\u2019ve always heeded my <strong>brother-in-law\u2019s<\/strong> financial advice.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophe and s are added to the end of a compound noun.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Reznor and Ross\u2019s<\/strong> first soundtrack won a 2010 Oscar for Best Original Score.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophe and <em>s<\/em> are added to the end of the final noun in cases of joint possession. Saying \u201cReznor\u2019s and Ross\u2019s first soundtrack\u201d would refer to solo soundtracks by each.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The apostrophe before the s signals to the reader that the preceding singular noun is in possession of the noun or noun phrase following. To test whether you are dealing with a case of possession, you can flip the order and insert \u201cof the\u201d between the nouns or noun phrases. In the first example above where the brain belongs to Einstein, for instance, \u201cthe brain of Einstein\u201d is a wordier equivalent of \u201cEinstein\u2019s brain\u201d but confirms possession.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for <em>s<\/em> added to the end of words when your intention is to show possession, but you\u2019ve omitted the apostrophe, making the word look like a simple plural. Add the apostrophe. Also, in cases where an apostrophe is added to the very end of a singular noun that ends in s to show possession (see the second correct example above), add another s rather than imply that the singular noun is plural.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Mr. <strong>Davis\u2019 companies proposals<\/strong> request is for a 33% funding increase.<\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">Mr. <strong>Davis\u2019s company\u2019s proposal\u2019s<\/strong> request is for a 33% funding increase.<\/p>\n<p>The incorrect sentence above contains three apostrophe errors:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The company belongs to Mr. Davis, who is just one person and is therefore grammatically singular despite having a name ending in <em>s<\/em>. Perhaps the writer heard that you can\u2019t have an \u201cs\u2019s\u201d due to pronunciation concerns, but usually we pronounce this <em>Day-viss-ez<\/em> to indicate possession. Thrown by this and confusing the singular and plural possessive forms, the writer who omits the s and may cause the same confusion can avoid doing so by adding it.<\/li>\n<li>The proposal belongs to the company, but the apostrophe is omitted and the plural form of company (\u201ccompanies\u201d) is given instead of \u201ccompany\u2019s.\u201d The error is likely due to the fact that the plural noun and singular possessive noun forms are <strong>homophones<\/strong>\u2014they sound exactly alike but are spelled differently and mean different things (see <a href=\"http:\/\/www.homophone.com\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">homophone.com<\/a> for several examples of such homophones). Correcting this is a simple matter of replacing \u201cies\u201d with \u201cy\u2019s\u201d at the end of the word.<\/li>\n<li>Finally, the request is in the proposal and thus belongs to it. Omitting the apostrophe makes the plural noun \u201cproposals,\u201d and fixing it is just a matter of adding the apostrophe before the final <em>s<\/em>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#532\">Return to Quick Rules: Apostrophes<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"ar21\"><\/a>Apostrophe Rule 2.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put an apostrophe after the s ending a plural possessive noun.<\/h3>\n<p>Put an apostrophe after the s at the end of a plural noun (a noun of two or more people, places, or things) when the noun or noun phrase following belongs to it.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The two <strong>companies\u2019<\/strong> merger was finalized last month.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophe goes at the end of the plural noun \u201ccompanies\u201d to indicate that the noun following (\u201cmerger\u201d) belonged to both.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The<strong> Joneses\u2019<\/strong> family tradition includes rescuing ancient artifacts from dastardly villains.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophe is added to the end of \u201cJoneses,\u201d the plural of the surname \u201cJones,\u201d meaning each individual Jones family member is in joint possession of the noun phrase following (\u201cfamily tradition\u201d).<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I listed having had three <strong>years\u2019<\/strong> experience in C++ coding on my r\u00e9sum\u00e9.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophe comes at the end of the plural \u201cyears\u201d to indicate that the noun following happened in those years. This is a more concise alternative to saying \u201cthree years of experience.\u201d<\/p>\n<h5>Exception:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">When the plural form of the noun is irregular in that it doesn\u2019t end in <em>s<\/em> (e.g., \u201cfeet,\u201d \u201cchildren,\u201d \u201cmen,\u201d \u201cmice,\u201d \u201cteeth\u201d), use the singular possessive apostrophe-s.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Can you please point me to the<strong> men\u2019s<\/strong> room?<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The singular possessive apostrophe-s form is added to the end of an irregular plural noun that doesn\u2019t end in s to indicate possession.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The apostrophe after the s tells the reader to read the noun as being a plural in possession of the noun or noun phrase following, as opposed to the apostrophe before the s signalling a singular possessive.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for plural words that end in s being in possession of the noun following without an apostrophe at the end, or the apostrophe added before the s. Either add the apostrophe to the end of the word or move the it there.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We\u2019ve been granted two <strong>months<\/strong> grace.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We\u2019ve been granted two <strong>month\u2019s<\/strong> grace.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We\u2019ve been granted two <strong>months\u2019<\/strong> grace.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Here, the grace period belongs to the two months (plural), so omitting the apostrophe is incorrect because it leaves \u201cmonths\u201d as a simple plural. The apostrophe-s ending is also incorrect because it makes \u201cmonth\u201d singular, which disagrees with the \u201ctwo\u201d preceding. To correct these errors, the apostrophe must go after the<em> s<\/em> at the end of \u201cmonths.\u201d<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#532\">Return to Quick Rules: Apostrophes<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"ar22\"><\/a>Apostrophe Rule 2.2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Don\u2019t put an apostrophe before the s ending a non-possessive plural decade<\/h3>\n<p>Don\u2019t put an apostrophe between the<em> 0<\/em> and <em>s<\/em> when writing a plural decade that\u2019s not possessive (e.g., 1990s). Put an apostrophe at the end only if the decade is in possession of the noun or noun phrase following.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The <strong>1980s\u2019<\/strong> main contribution to popular music was excessive cheesy synthesizers.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophe follows the plural decade, (meaning everything that happened from January 1, 1981, to December 31<sup>st<\/sup>, 1990) to show possession of the noun phrase \u201cmain contribution.\u201d You could also say, \u201cThe main contribution of the 1980s to popular music was . . . .\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>1980\u2019s<\/strong> Academy Award for Best Picture went to Ordinary People.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophe precedes the s to mean that the event following happened in the year 1980.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader:<\/h4>\n<p>The apostrophe after the s signals to the reader that the noun or noun phrase following happened in the decade given. Some mistakenly put an apostrophe between the <em>0<\/em> and <em>s<\/em> when referring to the simple plural of a decade (e.g., 1990\u2019s), but this conflicts with the singular possessive form of the year (see the \u201c1980\u2019s\u201d example above). If the decade were also possessive, \u201c1990\u2019s\u2019\u201d (with two apostrophes\u2014one before and one after the s) would look awkward. The non-possessive apostrophe between the <em>0<\/em> and <em>s<\/em> is probably confusing the rule that places the contraction apostrophe before the last two digits of the year or decade (see the third example in <a href=\"#ar3\">Apostrophe Rule 3<\/a> below).<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for an apostrophe-s added to the end of a decade and delete the apostrophe if the decade (or year at the beginning of the decade) isn\u2019t in possession of the following noun or noun phrase.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The <strong>1990\u2019s<\/strong> were a colourful decade in men\u2019s fashion.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The <strong>1990s<\/strong> were a colourful decade in men\u2019s fashion.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The <strong>\u201990s<\/strong> were a colourful decade in men\u2019s fashion.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the incorrect sentence above, \u201c1990\u2019s\u201d is the singular possessive form of \u201c1990,\u201d meaning something belonging to the year 1990 should follow it rather than a verb. Perhaps the writer confused \u201c1990\u2019s\u201d with the contraction \u201c \u201990s.\u201d The apostrophe before the s must be deleted to make the simple plural \u201c1990s,\u201d meaning all the years from 1991 to 2000 inclusive.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#532\">Return to Quick Rules: Apostrophes<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"ar3\"><\/a>Apostrophe Rule 3:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put an apostrophe where letters are omitted in contractions.<\/h3>\n<p>Put an apostrophe wherever letters and characters (including spaces) have been omitted in contractions. <strong>Contractions<\/strong> are two (sometimes more) words combined into one word to represent the way they\u2019re often said quickly as one word in informal speech. In the examples below, the contractions would be incorrect if formal writing were expected by the audience but are correct as informal writing.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>There\u2019s<\/strong> going to be a huge reckoning when markets adjust, and it <strong>won\u2019t<\/strong> be pretty.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The first apostrophes replace the omitted<em> i<\/em> in \u201cThere is\u201d and the second for the <em>o<\/em> in \u201cwill not\u201d)<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I <strong>woudn\u2019t\u2019ve<\/strong> have said that if I knew you were sensitive about your nose.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophes replace the omitted <em>o<\/em> and<em> a<\/em> in the three-word phrase \u201cwould not have\u201d contracted into one word.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>She\u2019s<\/strong> been <strong>bangin\u2019<\/strong> out hit records since the \u201970s<\/em>.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophes replace the omitted space and <em>ha <\/em>in \u201cShe has,\u201d final <em>g<\/em> in \u201cbanging,\u201d and 19 in \u201c1970s.\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>It\u2019s<\/strong> a pretty bad cold, sure, but <strong>\u2019sbeen<\/strong> <strong>a while<\/strong> and <strong>\u2019tis<\/strong> the season, as they say.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophes replace the omitted space and<em> i<\/em> in the contraction for \u201cIt is,\u201d<em> it ha<\/em> in \u201cit has been,\u201d and first<em> i<\/em> in \u201cit is.\u201d<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Exceptions:<\/strong> Many contractions at the far end of informality typically omit even contractions.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>I\u2019m gonna<\/strong> get me a cold beer when this <strong>shift\u2019s<\/strong> over.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The first apostrophe replaces the omitted space and a in \u201cI am,\u201d and the second replaces the space and <em>i<\/em> in \u201cshift is.\u201d As a convention in the writing of <em>gonna<\/em> as a contraction of \u201cgoing to,\u201d apostrophes aren\u2019t used to replace the omitted <em>i, g, t,<\/em> and <em>o<\/em>.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The apostrophe replaces omitted letters in contractions and thus signals informal writing meant to represent the way we speak words informally, though they would be unacceptable in formal writing. Some common contractions that often confuse readers because they are homophones with other words include:<\/p>\n<h5>Table 5.3.2: Commonly Confused or Misspelled Contractions<\/h5>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 25%\">Contraction<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 25%\">Meaning<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 25%\">Not<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 25%\">Meaning<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">can\u2019t<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">cannot<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">cant<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">slang<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">could\u2019ve<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">could have<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">could of<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">(\u201cof\u201d confused with \u201chave\u201d)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">I\u2019d<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">I would<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">Id<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">agent of instinct to Freud<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">I\u2019m<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">I am<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">Im<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">Cockney for \u201chim\u201d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">it\u2019s<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">it is<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">its<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">possessive pronoun<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">I\u2019ve<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">I have<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">Ive<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">(misspelled)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">let\u2019s<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">let us<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">lets<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">a form of the verb <em>to let<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">o\u2019clock<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">of the clock<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">oclock<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">(misspelled)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">should\u2019ve<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">should have<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">should of<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">(\u201cof\u201d confused with \u201chave\u201d)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">there\u2019s<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">there is \/ was<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">theirs<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">possessive pronoun<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">they\u2019re<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">they are<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">there \/ their<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">pronoun \/ possessive pron.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">we\u2019re<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">we are \/ were<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">were<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">a form of the verb <em>to be<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">where\u2019s<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">where is \/ was<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">wears<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">a form of the verb <em>to wear<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">who\u2019s<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">who is \/ was<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">whose<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">possessive pronoun<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">who\u2019re<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">who are \/ were<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">whore<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">prostitute<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">would\u2019ve<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">would have<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">would of<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">(\u201cof\u201d confused with \u201chave\u201d)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">you\u2019re<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">you are \/ were<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">your<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 25%\">possessive pronoun<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>For a more exhaustive set, see the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:List_of_English_contractions\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">List of English contractions<\/a> (Wikipedia, 2018).<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for the absence of apostrophes in contractions and add them. Your spellchecker will help catch these in most cases (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/5-1-substantial-revisions#5148\/\">Figure 5.1.4.8<\/a> above), but you must be especially careful in seeking them out if your spellchecker has any difficulty. Ensure also that you always use the form of apostrophe that looks like a small superscript \u201c9,\u201d not \u201c6\u201d (the opening of single quotation marks; see <a href=\"#qmr2\">Quotation Marks Rule 2<\/a>) especially when placed at the beginning of words or numbers.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>Its<\/strong> not like <strong>there gone to<\/strong> kick us out if <strong>im<\/strong> late and <strong>your<\/strong> hammered.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>It\u2019s<\/strong> not like <strong>they\u2019re gonna<\/strong> kick me out if <strong>I\u2019m<\/strong> late and <strong>you\u2019re<\/strong> hammered.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The many errors in the incorrect sentence can be corrected in the following ways:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><em>It\u2019s<\/em> (for \u201cit is\u201d) is meant rather than the third-person possessive pronoun<em> Its<\/em><\/li>\n<li><em>they\u2019re<\/em> (for \u201cthey are\u201d) is meant rather than the pronoun<em> there<\/em><\/li>\n<li><em>gonna<\/em> (for \u201cgoing to\u201d) is meant rather than \u201cgone to,\u201d<\/li>\n<li><em>I\u2019m<\/em> (for \u201cI am\u201d) is meant rather than \u201cim\u201d<\/li>\n<li><em>you\u2019re<\/em> is meant rather than the possessive pronoun \u201cyour\u201d<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I <strong>cant<\/strong> imagine life without <strong>\u201870\u2019s<\/strong> rock<strong> \u2018n<\/strong> roll.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I <strong>can\u2019t<\/strong> imagine life without<strong> \u201970s<\/strong> rock <strong>n\u2019<\/strong> roll.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The errors in the incorrect sentence can be corrected in the following ways:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><em>can\u2019t<\/em> (for \u201ccannot\u201d) is meant rather than <em>cant<\/em>, meaning \u201cslang.\u201d<\/li>\n<li><em>\u201970s<\/em> (for <em>1970s<\/em> with the apostrophe like a superscript \u201c9\u201d) is meant rather than the opening single-quotation mark (like a superscript \u201c6\u201d); the trick to getting the correct direction of apostrophe is to type any letter first, then the apostrophe to orient it in the form appearing as a small superscript \u201c9,\u201d and then go back to delete the letter in front of it<\/li>\n<li><em>n\u2019<\/em> (for \u201cand\u201d) is meant rather than the opening single-quotation mark (like a superscript \u201c6\u201d) appearing before the n; an apostrophe replacing the a, in addition to the one for <em>d<\/em>, is seen as excessive<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#532\">Return to Quick Rules: Apostrophes<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"ar4\"><\/a>Apostrophe Rule 4:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put an apostrophe before a plural s following single letters.<\/h3>\n<p>Put an apostrophe wherever adding an s to make a simple plural would be confusing, such as pluralizing a single letter.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>As my mom always said, \u201cMind your <strong>p\u2019s<\/strong> and <strong>q\u2019s<\/strong>, dot your <strong>i\u2019s<\/strong>, and cross your<strong> t\u2019s<\/strong>.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophes help form the plurals of the lowercase letters when they would otherwise look confusing as \u201cps\u201d and \u201cqs,\u201d or ambiguous as \u201cis.\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I\u2019m aiming for straight <strong>A\u2019s<\/strong> this semester.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The apostrophe helps form the plural of the uppercase letters when it would otherwise look ambiguous as \u201cAs.\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The apostrophe helps the reader see these as plural forms of letters rather than as misspellings or typos.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>In the rare case of using a plural form of a letter, separate the letter and its<em> s<\/em> with an apostrophe if you have omitted it.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You need to practice rolling your <strong>rs<\/strong> if you want to nail the Italian accent.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You need to practice rolling your <strong>r\u2019s<\/strong> if you want to nail the Italian accent.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the example above, omitting the apostrophe makes the plural of the letter <em>r<\/em> appear as a typo.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#532\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Apostrophes<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n<p>For more on apostrophes, see the following resources:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=859\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Guide to Grammar and Writing\u2019s Apostrophes page<\/a> (Darling, 2014f)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/621\/01\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Purdue OWL\u2019s The Apostrophe<\/a> (2013) along with its <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/exercises\/3\/3\/10\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Exercise: Apostrophes<\/a> (n.d.)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/apostrophe.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Punctuation Guide\u2019s Apostrophe page<\/a> (Penn, 2011b)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/apostro.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Grammar Book\u2019s Apostrophes page<\/a> and its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/apostrophes_1.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Apostrophes Quiz 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/apostrophes_2.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Apostrophes Quiz 2<\/a> (Straus, 2014a)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"#menu\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/p>\n<h1><a id=\"533\"><\/a>5.3.3: Colons<\/h1>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-94\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2018\/06\/colon-semi-300x163.png\" alt=\"Colon and semicolon\" width=\"300\" height=\"163\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2018\/06\/colon-semi-300x163.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2018\/06\/colon-semi-65x35.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2018\/06\/colon-semi-225x122.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2018\/06\/colon-semi-350x190.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2018\/06\/colon-semi.png 591w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/>Colons and semicolons are often confused because of the similarities in both their names and form, though they perform quite different punctuation roles. A colon looks like a period stacked on top of another and is mainly used to equate information on either side of it somewhat like an equals sign (=) in math. A semicolon, on the other hand, looks like a period stacked on top of a comma. The semicolon usually separates independent clauses from one another in a compound sentence as an alternative to using a comma and a conjunction. They both have additional specific uses as we shall see below, starting with the colon.<b><\/b><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2>Quick Rules: Colons<b><\/b><\/h2>\n<p>Click on the rules below to see further explanations, examples, advice on what to look for when proofreading, and demonstrations of how to correct common colon errors associated with each one.<\/p>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;height: 296px;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<td style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cor11\">Colon Rule 1.1<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a colon at the end of a clause or phrase introducing a list.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>NASA built six space shuttles: <\/em>Enterprise, Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<td style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cor12\">Colon Rule 1.2<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a colon at the end of an opening salutation in formal emails and letters.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>Dear Ms. O\u2019Reilly:<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<td style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cor21\">Colon Rule 2.1<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a colon between an explanation and its introductory independent clause.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>The error in our prototype led to the solution of quite another problem: how to stabilize the transducer.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<td style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cor22\">Colon Rule 2.2<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a colon between a quotation and its introductory independent clause if the latter is a complete sentence.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>What they were actually saying was much simpler: \u201cEither give us the money up front, or we won\u2019t install the program.\u201d<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<td style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cor23\">Colon Rule 2.3<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Don\u2019t put a colon before a list or explanation preceded by a fragment.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>Their three best albums are<\/em> Fully Completely<em>,<\/em> Day for Night<em>, and<\/em> Trouble at the Henhouse<em>. <\/em>(no colon after \u201care\u201d)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<td style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cor31\">Colon Rule 3.1<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a colon between a main title and its subtitle.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>In the Realm of Hungry Ghosts: Close Encounters with Addiction<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<td style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cor32\">Colon Rule 3.2<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a colon between publisher locations and names in bibliographical references.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>Toronto: Nelson<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px\">\n<td style=\"width: 30%;height: 37px\"><a href=\"#cor33\">Colon Rule 3.3<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%;height: 37px\"><strong>Put a colon between numbers in ratios and times.<\/strong><br \/>\n<em>There\u2019s a 3:1 chance that the experiment will end before the 8:23:40 mark.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>Extended Explanations<\/h2>\n<h3><a id=\"cor11\"><\/a>Colon Rule 1.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a colon at the end of a clause or phrase introducing a list.<\/h3>\n<p>Put colon after a clause or phrase that introduces a list formatted either as a series separated by commas in the sentence or a bulleted or numbered stack down the page.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We\u2019re going to need some branded stationery: business cards for all associates, letterhead and memo templates, post-it notes, pens, and USB sticks.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The colon ends an independent clause (complete with a subject and predicate) that introduces a list arranged within the sentence.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>To find the date of a webpage that doesn\u2019t otherwise have one:<\/em><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><em>Type \u201cinurl:\u201d into the Google Search field, then copy and paste the URL of the webpage whose date you\u2019re looking for immediately after it<\/em><\/li>\n<li><em>Hit Enter and add \u201c&amp;as_qdr=y15\u201d to the end of the search result URL in the address bar above the results page, which should show the title of the webpage whose date you\u2019re looking for, but without the date yet<\/em><\/li>\n<li><em>Hit Enter again and you\u2019ll see the date appear in grey font below the webpage title in the updated results list<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The colon ends an infinitive phrase that, as a dependent clause, is completed by each imperative sentence in the numbered list of procedural steps arranged down the page.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The colon cues the reader to read the information following as a list of items in parallel delivering on the promise made in the clause or phrase preceding it.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for lists either in sentence form with each item separated by a comma or in the form of a numbered or bulleted list. If no colons separate the introductory clauses or phrases from the lists that follow, add them. If semicolons or commas introduce the lists (see <a href=\"#sc3\">Semicolon Rule 3<\/a> below), replace them with colons.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Four obstacles infuriate me on my rush to class through the hallways; inattentive people texting while walking, slow walkers, people who stop suddenly as if there\u2019s no one behind them, and 4-5 people walking side-by-side, taking up the whole hallway.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Four obstacles infuriate me on my rush to class through the hallways: inattentive people texting while walking, slow walkers, people who stop suddenly as if there\u2019s no one behind them, and 4-5 people walking side-by-side, taking up the whole hallway.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the example above, the writer made the common mistake of confusing a semicolon for a colon. Fixing it is a simple matter of replacing one with the other. See the example correct sentence for <a href=\"#cor21\">Colon Rule 2.1<\/a> below for a handy mnemonic for getting the right punctuation in these cases.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#533\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Colons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cor12\"><\/a>Colon Rule 1.2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a colon at the end of an opening salutation in formal emails and letters.<\/h3>\n<p>Put a colon at the end of the opening salutation line where you address the recipient by name at the opening of a formal email or letter. In a semiformal email, a comma at the end of the salutation is fine. If an email is formal, however, a comma follows the greeting word (e.g., <em>Hello<\/em>) and the colon follows the recipient\u2019s name.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Greetings, Greta:<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The colon following the semiformal email\u2019s opening salutation cues the recipient (Greta) to read the message following it.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Dear Mrs. Jackson:<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The colon following the formal letter\u2019s opening salutation cues the recipient (Mrs. Jackson) to read the message following it.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Exception:<\/strong> In an informal message, a comma following the recipient\u2019s name (but not the greeting word) strikes a more casual tone in the opening salutation.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Hi Hank,<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The comma following the informal message\u2019s opening salutation cues the recipient (Hank) to read the message following it.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The colon cues the reader to read the message following the salutation that addresses them by name.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for either no punctuation used at the end of an opening salutation address or other punctuation inappropriate for the occasion, such as a comma in a letter\u2019s salutation, or incorrect, such as a semicolon.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Dear Mr. Bobrovsky,<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Dear Mr. Bobrovsky;<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Dear Mr. Bobrovsky:<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the first incorrect example, a comma used at the end of an opening salutation addressing the reader in a letter is too informal for the given channel. This suggests to the professional reader that the writer isn\u2019t up to date on business letter writing conventions. Modern business writers use a colon instead of a comma. Worse, the semicolon suggests that the writer is confused about the respective roles of colons and semicolons despite having had ample opportunity to learn them throughout their Enlgish-speaking lives.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#533\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Colons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cor21\"><\/a>Colon Rule 2.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a colon between an explanation and its introductory independent clause.<\/h3>\n<p>Put colon after an independent clause followed by a statement that explains in further detail what the introductory clause states in general. An independent clause is one that can stand on its own as a sentence beginning with a capital and ending with a period because it expresses a complete thought with a subject (doer) and a predicate (action; see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#431\/\">\u00a74.3.1<\/a> above). This colon usually stands for the causal transition phrase \u201c\u2014that is, . . . .\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Imagining the colon elongating into an equals sign (=) is a useful way to remember what it does: equate information on either side of it.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The independent clause ends with a colon and the verb phrase following explains what \u201cdoes\u201d means. Since the material to the right of the colon is a verb phrase rather than a complete sentence, the e in \u201cequate\u201d remains lowercase.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The colon cues the reader to read the phrase or clause to the right of the colon as an explanation of what the clause to the left of it says.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for combination statement-explanation sentence structures with either no punctuation between them or the wrong punctuation such as a semicolon, comma, or long dash (em dash).<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You have only one option left\u2014delete the corrupted file from your hard drive and download the last version you saved to the cloud.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You have only one option left: delete the corrupted file from your hard drive and download the last version you saved to the cloud.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the incorrect sentence above, the writer made the common mistake of using the long dash as multipurpose punctuation for any pause you hear in speech. Fixing the sentence is a simple matter of replacing the long dash with a colon. You could alternatively add \u201cthat is, \u201d between the long dash and \u201cdelete,\u201d but the colon makes for a more concise sentence with two fewer words.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#533\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Colons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cor22\"><\/a>Colon Rule 2.2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a colon between a quotation and its introductory independent clause if the latter is a complete sentence.<\/h3>\n<p>Put a colon after an independent clause that introduces a quotation. Like the clause followed by an explanation in <a href=\"#cor21\">Colon Rule 2.1<\/a> above, it must be a complete clause that can stand on its own before the colon and quotation.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The first joke he told was a groaner of the highest order: \u201cWhat did the fish say when you put him in his tank? . . . \u2018Hey, how do you drive this thing?\u2019\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The quotation is introduced by an independent clause that ends with a colon, whereas a signal phrase that ends with a verb such as \u201csaid\u201d is followed by a comma.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The colon cues the reader to read the quotation to the right of the colon.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for quotations preceded by a complete independent clause. If they don\u2019t have a colon separating them from the quotation, add one. Also, look for colons used to set up quotations when a comma is more appropriate, such as if the last word before the quotation is a verb, which would make the clause preceding the colon incomplete. In such cases, you would either replace the colon with a comma or rephrase the introductory fragment to make it an independent clause.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Mama called the doctor and the doctor said: \u201cNo more monkeys jumping on the bed.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Mama called the doctor and the doctor said, \u201cNo more monkeys jumping on the bed.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Mama called the doctor and the doctor gave her an ultimatum: \u201cLook, if another one of your children falls off the bed and gets a concussion, I\u2019ll be reporting you to the Children\u2019s Aid Society.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the example above, the clause preceding the colon and quotation is a compound with a fragmentary second clause missing an object after the transitive verb \u201csaid,\u201d whereas it would have to be a complete independent clause to use a colon. Correcting it would be a simple matter of replacing the colon with a comma (see <a href=\"#cr35\">Comma Rule 3.5<\/a> above). Alternatively, you could make the introductory clause a complete and independent one, meaning it could stand on its own as a sentence, then use a colon before the quotation.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#533\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Colons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cor23\"><\/a>Colon Rule 2.3:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Don\u2019t put a colon before an explanation or quotation preceded by a fragment.<\/h3>\n<p>Don\u2019t put a colon before an explanation or list if the clause that precedes it is not an independent one\u2014that is, if it cannot stand on its own as a sentence.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for colons ending phrases or incomplete clauses with lists or explanatory statements following, and simply delete them or rephrase the incomplete clause as a complete one. The incorrect sentence at the end of <a href=\"#cor22\">Colon Rule 2.2<\/a> above exemplifies an incomplete clause preceding a quotation; below is one preceding a list:<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>The remaining tasks include:<\/strong> picking up the birthday cake, putting up the streamers, and wrapping the presents.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>The remaining tasks include<\/strong> picking up the birthday cake, putting up the streamers, and wrapping the presents.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em><strong>The following tasks remain:<\/strong> picking up the birthday cake, putting up the streamers, and wrapping the presents.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the example above, the colon ends an incomplete clause\u2014incomplete because it has a subject and only half of the predicate. The verb \u201cinclude\u201d is <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/transitiveverb.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transitive<\/a>, which means that an object (a thing acted upon by the verb) must follow it (Simmons, 2007a). The objects here are <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/gerund.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">gerunds<\/a>, which are verbs in noun form ending in -ing (Simmons, 2018b) and are all on the other side of the colon, so the colon can just be deleted. Alternatively, the incomplete clause can be completed by changing the subject to \u201cThe following tasks\u201d to set up the list and changing the verb to the intransitive \u201cremain\u201d\u2014<a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/intransitiveverb.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">intransitive<\/a> because it <em>doesn\u2019t<\/em> take an object (Simmons, 2008).<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#533\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Colons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cor31\"><\/a>Colon Rule 3.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a colon between a main title and its subtitle.<b><\/b><\/h3>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The colon separates main title from subtitle.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The colon distinguishes what should be known as the main title of the book, film, report, assignment, etc. Often this is a catchy, snappy handle for what to call it. The subtitle usually provides a little more practical information about what the work is about (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-6-effective-document-design#461\/\">\u00a74.6.1<\/a> above for more on titles).<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for titles that have any punctuation other than colons between main titles and subtitles. Often the cover of a book positions the subtitle below the main title and in a smaller font, in which case a colon must be added when transcribing the title into a document.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Amusing Ourselves to Death \/ Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the example above, the absence of punctuation separating the main title from the subtitle on the cover may have prompted the writer to make one up by using a slash. The convention for representing main titles and subtitles, however, is to separate them with a colon.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#533\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Colons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cor32\"><\/a>Colon Rule 3.2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a colon between publisher locations and names in bibliographical references.<\/h3>\n<p>Put a colon between the location and company name of a publisher in APA References.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Toronto: ECW.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The colon separates location and publisher.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The colon is merely a convention for separating the publisher location and name. Readers like to know if the book is published in the major centres like New York or London, or if they\u2019re more local like Toronto or Vancouver.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for the part in bibliographical references of books where the publisher information is given. If any punctuation other than a colon separates them, replace it with a colon.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>New York, Random House.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>New York: Random House.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the example above, the comma is non-standard punctuation separating the city where the book publisher is based and the name of the publisher. It must be replaced with a colon.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#533\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Colons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"cor33\"><\/a>Colon Rule 3.3:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a colon between numbers in ratios and times.<\/h3>\n<p>Put a colon between numbers in mathematical ratios and to separate hours, minutes, and seconds when indicating time.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>A globe scaled 1:50,220,000 (or 790 miles to the inch) is one you can grip in the palm of your hand.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The ratio colon indicates the relative size difference between the model (given as 1 here) and the real thing, which in this case is over fifty million times bigger than the model.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Clocking in at 3:24:56, that film was three hours, twenty-four minutes, and fifty-six seconds too long.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The colons divide units of time into hours, minutes, and seconds. After seconds, decimal-periods are used for fractions of seconds.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The colon expresses mathematical relationships and the division of units between numbers in a space-efficient manner.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for ratios and times to ensure that a colon is being used and that there are no spaces between it and the numbers on either side.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>My first marathon time was 3: 22: 15 and my second was a slower 3.26.44.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>My first marathon time was 3:22:15 and my second was a slower 3:26:44.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the example above, errors in spacing and using non-standard punctuation are easily corrected by deleting spaces between the numbers and colons in the first time written and using colons instead of periods in the second.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#533\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Colons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>For more on colons, see the following resources:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=886\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Guide to Grammar and Writing\u2019s Colons page<\/a> along with its <a href=\"http:\/\/www.dactivity.com\/activity\/index.aspx?content=2ihf3ExmqU\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Semicolons, Colons, and Commas digital-activity exercises<\/a> at the bottom (Darling, 2014h) (Darling, 2014g)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/977\/04\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Purdue OWL\u2019s Punctuation\u2014Semicolons, Colons, and Parentheses page<\/a> (Cimisko, 2018)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/colon.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Punctuation Guide\u2019s Colon page<\/a> (Penn, 2011c)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/colons.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Grammar Book\u2019s Colons page<\/a> and its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/semicolons_and_colons_1.asp\">Semicolons and Colons Quiz 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/semicolons_and_colons_2.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Semicolons and Colons Quiz 2<\/a> at the bottom (Straus, 2015a)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><a id=\"534\"><\/a>5.3.4: Semicolons<b><\/b><\/h1>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-95\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/semicolon-300x177.png\" alt=\"semicolon and colon\" width=\"300\" height=\"177\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/semicolon-300x177.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/semicolon-65x38.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/semicolon-225x133.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/semicolon-350x207.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/semicolon.png 544w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/>Semicolons and colons are often confused because of the similarities in both their names and form, though they perform quite different punctuation roles. A semicolon looks like a period stacked on top of a comma and is mainly used to separate independent clauses from one another in a compound sentence as an alternative to using a comma and a conjunction. A colon, on the other hand, looks like a period stacked atop another and is mainly used to equate information on either side of it somewhat like an equals sign (=) in math. They both have additional specific uses as we saw above with colons in <a href=\"#533\">\u00a75.3.3<\/a> above and will now see with semicolons.<b><\/b><\/p>\n<h2><\/h2>\n<h2>Quick Rules: Semicolons<b><\/b><\/h2>\n<p>Click on the rules below to see further explanations, examples, advice on what to look for when proofreading, and demonstrations of how to correct common semicolon errors associated with each one.<\/p>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#scr1\">Semicolon Rule 1<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put a semicolon between related independent clauses to make a compound sentence.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Yes, we finished the marketing report you asked for; it\u2019s printed and bound in your departmental mailbox.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#scr2\">Semicolon Rule 2<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put a semicolon between sub-lists in a series of lists in a sentence.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>Italicize words, phrases, and clauses for emphasis or when you refer to them as such; the titles of books, albums, feature-length films, and websites; and ships, named aircraft, and other named vehicles.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#scr3\">Semicolon Rule 3<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Don\u2019t put a semicolon where a colon should be used.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>We can be thankful for what Oscar taught us: that being kind to our canine companions brings immense joy to our lives. (colon used after \u201cus\u201d to set up an explanation, not a semicolon)<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>Extended Explanations<\/h2>\n<h3><a id=\"scr1\"><\/a>Semicolon Rule 1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a semicolon between related independent clauses to make a compound sentence.<\/h3>\n<p>Put a semicolon between independent clauses whose content is so closely related that it makes sense to keep them in the same sentence, though they have different grammatical subjects (doers of the action). An independent clause is one that can stand on its own as a complete sentence because it has a subject (doer) and predicate (action) (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#431\/\">\u00a74.3.1<\/a>). A compound sentence joins two independent clauses either with a comma and coordinating conjunction (and, but, so, etc.; see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#t432a\/\">Table 4.3.2a<\/a>) or with a semicolon. Doing neither would make a run-on sentence, and using only a comma between the clauses would make a comma splice. Use a semicolon in compound sentences where none of the seven coordinating conjunctions is appropriate to use or where you need to be as concise as possible and can do without the conjunction without sacrificing clarity.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The new website is nearly ready to launch; we just need to set some SEO controls and publish it.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The semicolon joins the independent clause beginning with the subject \u201cThe new website\u201d and the other with the subject \u201cwe.\u201d Both could stand on their own as sentences but are closely related enough to be in the same sentence.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The semicolon helps the reader see where one clause ends and another (with a different grammatical subject) begins. It also signals that these are two closely related ideas worth joining in the same sentence.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for compound sentences punctuated with anything other than a semicolon (e.g., a comma, which makes a comma splice; see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/5-2-proofreading-for-grammar#5211\/\">\u00a75.2.1.1<\/a>) or with no punctuation at all between them (run-on sentences; see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/5-2-proofreading-for-grammar#5212\/\">\u00a75.2.1.2<\/a>). For this you really must know sentence structure well enough to spot the grammatical subject of a main (a.k.a. independent) clause so that you can tell if a second subject begins a new independent clause within a sentence but without the necessary punctuation preceding it. Review <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/4-3-forming-effective-sentences#431\/\">\u00a74.3.1<\/a> above on sentence structure if you need a refresher.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We would like to see less personal cellphone use from employees during working hours, however you can of course use your cellphone in an emergency.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We would like to see less personal cellphone use from employees during working hours; however, you can of course use your cellphone in an emergency.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The incorrect sentence above is a comma splice because it uses only a comma to separate two independent clauses (see <a href=\"#cr12\">Comma Rule 1.2<\/a>). The error is easier to spot if you imagine deleting the conjunctive adverb however. Replacing the comma with a semicolon and adding a comma after the conjunctive adverb easily fixes the problem.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You can put the meeting in the calendar make it so we get a notification the day before.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>You can put the meeting in the calendar; make it so we get a notification the day before.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The incorrect sentence above is a run-on sentence because it contains two independent clauses without any punctuation between them. Adding a semicolon quickly makes the sentence a properly punctuated compound sentence.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#534\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Semicolons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"scr2\"><\/a>Semicolon Rule 2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put a semicolon between sub-lists in a series of lists in a sentence.<\/h3>\n<p>Use semicolons as a \u201csuper comma\u201d between groups of items in a long list of items arranged in a sentence.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Please send T4s to Brenda, Albert, and Joan in Accounting; Jeremy, Lorraine, and Drew in Marketing; and Jasmine, Lily, and Alphonso in Legal.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The semicolon acts as a \u201csuper comma\u201d that separates three sub-lists of three employees each according to their respective department in an office.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The semicolon helps the reader see subgroups within a long list that would be confusing if it included ands between the two last items in each subgroup throughout.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for sentences that contain long lists and see if there are internal groupings that can be separated with semicolons rather than commas.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>She was a kind mother, sister, and daughter, a dedicated public servant, business owner, and campaigner for progressive issues, as well as a kind soul with an insatiable curiosity, brilliant mind, and a big heart.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>She was a kind mother, sister, and daughter; a dedicated public servant, business owner, and campaigner for progressive issues; as well as a kind soul with an insatiable curiosity, brilliant mind, and a big heart.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the incorrect example above, the long list of items is internally organized into groups of family and professional roles, as well as personal qualities. To help the reader follow these divisions as they switch from one group to another, the semicolon acts as a \u201csuper comma.\u201d<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#534\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Semicolons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"scr3\"><\/a>Semicolon Rule 3:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Don\u2019t put a semicolon where a colon should be used.<\/h3>\n<p>Don\u2019t use semicolons as if they were interchangeable with colons. They are different punctuation marks performing different functions. Review the semicolon rules above and compare with <a href=\"#533\">\u00a75.3.3<\/a> on uses for colons.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look for semicolons and determine if they are being used appropriately in the manner described in the rules above, or if they are actually performing the functions of colons explained and exemplified in <a href=\"#533\">\u00a75.3.3<\/a> above. You can jump straight to every instance of a semicolon throughout your document by performing a word search (ctrl. + f) and just typing in a semicolon (;).<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Please send notifications to the following people; your family, friends, employer(s), legal representative(s), and financial planner(s).<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Please send notifications to the following people: your family, friends, employer(s), legal representative(s), and financial planner(s).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the incorrect example above, the semicolon is being used to introduce a list of items, which is the function of a colon (see <a href=\"#cor11\">Colon Rule 1<\/a>). Simply replacing the semicolon with a colon corrects the error.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#534\">Return to<strong> Quick Rules: Semicolons<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>For more on colons, see the following resources:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=978\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Guide to Grammar and Writing\u2019s Semicolon\u2019s page<\/a> along with its <a href=\"http:\/\/www.dactivity.com\/activity\/index.aspx?content=2ihf3ExmqU\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Semicolons, Colons, and Commas digital-activity exercises<\/a> at the bottom (Darling, 2014h)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/977\/04\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Purdue OWL\u2019s Punctuation\u2014Semicolons, Colons, and Parentheses page<\/a> (Cimisko, 2018)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/semicolon.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Punctuation Guide\u2019s Semicolon page<\/a> (Penn, 2011d)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/semicolons.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Grammar Book\u2019s Semicolons page<\/a> and its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/semicolons_and_colons_1.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Semicolons and Colons Quiz 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/semicolons_and_colons_2.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Semicolons and Colons Quiz 2<\/a> at the bottom (Straus, 2014b)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><a id=\"535\"><\/a>5.3.5: Parentheses<b><\/b><\/h1>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-96\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/parenthesis-300x171.png\" alt=\"parentheses and brackets\" width=\"300\" height=\"171\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/parenthesis-300x171.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/parenthesis-65x37.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/parenthesis-225x128.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/parenthesis-350x199.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/parenthesis.png 545w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/>Parentheses are often confused with brackets because they look alike and perform similar functions. Parentheses are curved lines that surround qualifying, non-essential elements, whereas brackets are squared, open-ended boxes used for very specific parenthetical situations. Let\u2019s take a closer look at the occasions for which we would use parentheses rather than brackets or even commas.<b><\/b><\/p>\n<h2>Quick Rules: Parentheses<\/h2>\n<p>Click on the rules below to see further explanations, examples, advice on what to look for when proofreading, and demonstrations of how to correct common parentheses errors associated with each one.<\/p>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#pr11\">Parentheses Rule 1.1<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put parentheses around qualifying interjections of lesser importance within and between sentences.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>He put the folder (the green one, not the blue) in the filing cabinet thinking it was a client file rather than an administrative one.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#pr12\">Parentheses Rule 1.2<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Don\u2019t use parentheses where parenthetical commas would do.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>He put the green folder, not the blue one, in the filing cabinet.<\/em> (commas used instead of parentheses)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#pr2\">Parentheses Rule 2<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put parentheses around in-text citations crediting research sources in APA and MLA documentation styles.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Cellphones are giving youths neck and back problems typically seen in much older people (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S1529943017300967\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cu\u00e9llar &amp; Lanman, 2017<\/a>).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>Extended Explanations<\/h2>\n<h3><a id=\"pr11\"><\/a>Parentheses Rule 1.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put parentheses around qualifying interjections of lesser importance within and between sentences.<\/h3>\n<p>Use parentheses around interjections within a sentence where using parenthetical commas would lead to confusion. You can also use parentheses around an entire sentence that offers an aside that helps explain something said in the sentence previous. Parentheses always come in pairs: an <strong>opening parenthesis<\/strong> signals the beginning of an interjection of lesser importance, and a <strong>closing parenthesis<\/strong> signals the return to the sentence proper. When used around an entire sentence, the closing parenthesis goes <em>after<\/em> the sentence-ending period; otherwise, it goes before.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>We called pest control to get our office back from the vermin (silverfish, mites, house flies, fruit flies, and spiders) that seem to have taken up residency this past year.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The parentheses mark off a list that digresses from the main point of the sentence with a series of illustrative examples. Parentheses are a better alternative to parenthetical commas because they would confuse the reader with two different types of commas: parenthetical and series.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I\u2019ve come around in my opinion of the common house centipede. (I used to squash them at first sight.) It turns out that they\u2019re effective pest control agents themselves.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The parentheses mark off a whole sentence as a slightly digressive aside interrupting the flow of the main point.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The parentheses guide the reader towards reading the words, phrases, and clauses surrounded by them as being of lesser importance but still offering insight into what comes immediately before them.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look to make sure that the parentheses you use genuinely set off words, phrases, or clauses that help explain those that came before them, and that the parentheses both open and close. If you use parentheses around a whole sentence, ensure that the closing parenthesis goes to the right of the period rather than to the left.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I know house centipedes, scutigera coleoptrata, are ugly, but I\u2019m sure you would much rather have them in your home than the vermin they feed on.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I know house centipedes (scutigera coleoptrata, are ugly, but I\u2019m sure you would much rather have them in your home than the vermin they feed on.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I know house centipedes (scutigera coleoptrata) are ugly, but I\u2019m sure you would much rather have them in your home than the vermin they feed on.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The incorrect example above uses parenthetical commas to set off the Latin name of the insect referred to in the first clause, then uses a <a href=\"#\">Rule 1.1 comma<\/a> to crowd the area with commas. Parentheses would be more appropriate here, as well as in the second incorrect example that omits the closing parenthesis. The second sentence also places the parenthetical element at the end of the clause rather than where it should be: immediately after the common name of the insect it explains.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The next time you see a house centipede stuck in your bathtub, throw it a lifeline. (Don\u2019t try to pick it up; they\u2019re extremely fragile and fall apart at the slightest touch). Just rest one end of a metre stick on the edge of the tub and put the other end inside so the little guy can use it as a ramp to climb up and out.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The next time you see a house centipede stuck in your bathtub, throw it a lifeline. (Don\u2019t try to pick it up; they\u2019re extremely fragile and fall apart at the slightest touch.) Just rest one end of a metre stick on the edge of the tub and put the other end inside so the little guy can use it as a ramp to climb up and out.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The incorrect sentence places the closing parenthesis to the left of the period ending the parenthetical sentence; if the parenthetical sentence were deleted along with the parentheses, the period would be stranded between sentences. Correcting this involves simply moving the period so it goes to the left of the closing parenthesis.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#535\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Parentheses<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"pr12\"><\/a>Parentheses Rule 1.2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Don\u2019t use parentheses where parenthetical commas would do.<\/h3>\n<p>Don\u2019t overuse parentheses, especially where parenthetical commas would be more appropriate. Recall that, according to <a href=\"#cr31\">Comma Rule 3.1<\/a>, commas can surround parenthetical, non-essential words, phrases, and clauses added to explain immediately what came before. Whether you use commas or parentheses, the sentence must make grammatical sense without the interjected element. The problem with overusing parentheses, however, is that it clutters up your writing with distracting asides, so the less conspicuous comma is preferable in situations where a parenthetical element doesn\u2019t need full parentheses.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look to make sure that the parentheses you use can\u2019t be replaced with commas without causing confusion. In other words, if the parenthetical element follows <a href=\"#cr31\">Comma Rule 3.1<\/a> and doesn\u2019t involve other types of commas covered by the other rules, then use commas instead of parentheses.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>At the same time, the market dropped a few thousand points (which wouldn\u2019t have been so bad if it didn\u2019t stay down for so long), so no one was buying anything.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>At the same time, the market dropped a few thousand points, which wouldn\u2019t have been so bad if it didn\u2019t stay down for so long, so no one was buying anything.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The incorrect example above includes a restrictive relative clause beginning with which, which is a perfect example of a non-essential parenthetical clause that we saw being set off from the main clause in <a href=\"#cr31\">Comma Rule 3.1<\/a> above. In this case, commas would be better to use than parentheses.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#535\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Parentheses<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"pr2\"><\/a>Parentheses Rule 2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put parentheses around in-text citations crediting research sources in APA and MLA documentation styles.<b><\/b><\/h3>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Others argue that \u201ctext neck\u201d is neither a true epidemic nor even a true ailment <a href=\"https:\/\/vitals.lifehacker.com\/text-neck-was-never-a-real-epidemic-1822024249\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">(Skwarecki, 2018)<\/a>, just as \u201cbook neck\u201d was never a condition that concerned anyone.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The parentheses mark off an APA-style in-text citation.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The parentheses tell the reader that the quotation, paraphrase, or summary came from the author or authors named within the parentheses. The reader can then consult the References section at the end of the document and easily find the full bibliographical reference for that source by searching out the same author last name in the alphabetical list of source authors. When citing multiple works by the same author, the year of publication in the citation allows the reader to distinguish between them (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/3-5-documenting-sources-in-apa-mla-or-ieee-styles#352\/\">\u00a73.5.2<\/a>&#8211;<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/3-5-documenting-sources-in-apa-mla-or-ieee-styles#353\/\">\u00a73.5.3<\/a> above for more on citations and references).<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look to make sure that you use parentheses rather than brackets if your documentation style is APA or MLA. IEEE, on the other hand, does use brackets, albeit with a numerical citation rather than author and year.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">\u201c<em>Text neck\u201d results from people straining their necks hunched over cellphones for several more hours per day, and thousands more per year, than they would if they were just reading books [Shoshany, 2015].<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>\u201cText neck\u201d results from people straining their necks hunched over cellphones for several more hours per day, and thousands more per year, than they would if they were just reading books <a href=\"https:\/\/www.spine-health.com\/blog\/modern-spine-ailment-text-neck\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">(Shoshany, 2015)<\/a>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The incorrect sentence above uses brackets rather than parentheses to mark off an in-text citation. Use parentheses for APA or MLA in-text citations.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#535\">Return to<strong> Quick Rules: Parentheses<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>For more on parentheses, see the following resources:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/977\/04\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Purdue OWL\u2019s Punctuation\u2014Semicolons, Colons, and Parentheses page<\/a> (Cimisko, 2018)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/parentheses.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Punctuation Guide\u2019s Parentheses page<\/a> (Penn, 2011e)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/parens.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Grammar Book\u2019s Parentheses and Brackets page<\/a> and its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/question_marks_1.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Question Marks, Quotation Marks, and Parentheses Quiz 1<\/a> linked at the bottom (Straus, 2014c)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><a id=\"536\"><\/a>5.3.6: Brackets<b><\/b><\/h1>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-97\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/brackets-300x173.png\" alt=\"brackets and parentheses\" width=\"300\" height=\"173\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/brackets-300x173.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/brackets-65x37.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/brackets-225x129.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/brackets-350x201.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/brackets.png 537w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/>Brackets are often confused with parentheses because they look alike and perform similar functions. Brackets are squared open-ended boxes used for more specific parenthetical situations than their curved-line counterparts. Let\u2019s take a closer look at the occasions for which we would use brackets rather than parentheses.<b><\/b><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2>Quick Rules: Brackets<\/h2>\n<p>Click on the rules below to see further explanations, examples, advice on what to look for when proofreading, and demonstrations of how to correct common bracket errors associated with each one.<\/p>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#br11\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Brackets Rule 1.1<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put brackets around changes or additions to the wording of quotations.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>He clearly wrote that \u201cThe contract [was] for $1.2 million [CDN] over five years\u201d back in 2012.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#br12\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Brackets Rule 1.2<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Don\u2019t put brackets around what should have parentheses.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>There\u2019s no law of physics (at least not technically) that keeps top athletes from running the 100m in under 9 seconds.<\/em> (parentheses appropriate instead of brackets)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#br2\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Brackets Rule 2<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put brackets around parenthetical elements within parentheses.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>We didn\u2019t have a clue what was causing the issue (we scoured the troubleshooting manual [Brul\u00e9, 2012]), so they shut it down.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><a href=\"#br3\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Brackets Rule 3<\/a><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Put brackets around numerical in-text citations crediting research sources when required to use IEEE style.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>Cellphones are giving youth neck and back problems typically seen in much older people [1].<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>Extended Explanations<\/h2>\n<h3><a id=\"br11\"><\/a>Brackets Rule 1.1:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put brackets around changes or additions to the wording of quotations.<\/h3>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p><em>The president tweeted that \u201cAll of the phony T.V. commercials against [him were] bought and payed [sic] for by SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n<p><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The first brackets change the original \u201cme are\u201d to \u201chim were\u201d to be consistent with the third-person orientation and past-tense verb in the signal phrase. The bracketed \u201c[<em>sic<\/em>]\u201d indicates that the quotation\u2019s spelling mistake was in the original source and intentionally kept rather than introduced by the writer when repeating the quotation.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The brackets indicate what changes the writer makes to a quotation, whether to lend clarity to the original wording or to make it grammatically consistent with the sentence around it. Doing so shows a concern for both quoting accurately and writing correctly. Sneaking in some changes to a quotation to suit your purposes is called misquoting. Sometimes the additions draw attention to errors in the original, such as corrections to the spelling or the use of \u201c[<em>sic<\/em>],\u201d short for the Latin sic erat scriptum (\u201cthus was it written\u201d), to preserve the author\u2019s error.<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Ensure that quotations are exact transcriptions of the original to avoid misquoting. If you find any intentional changes, surround them with brackets. Ensure also that any errors in the original quotation are preserved but identified with \u201c[<em>sic<\/em>]\u201d immediately following.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Apple\u2019s 1997 slogan encourages you to \u201cThink different\u201d by using their computers for outside-the-box solutions.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Apple\u2019s 1997 slogan encourages you to \u201cThink different [sic]\u201d by using their computers for outside-the-box solutions.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Apple\u2019s 1997 slogan encourages you to \u201cThink different[ly]\u201d by using their computers for outside-the-box solutions.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The incorrect example above contains a quotation that is grammatically incorrect in its original form. Adding \u201c[<em>sic<\/em>]\u201d ensures the reader that the critical writer is well aware that, with \u201cthink\u201d being a verb, \u201cdifferent\u201d would have to be the adverb \u201cdifferently\u201d to be correct. Adding the -ly ending in brackets takes a more corrective approach to the error.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#536\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Brackets<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"br12\"><\/a>Brackets Rule 1.2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Don\u2019t put brackets around what should have parentheses.<b><\/b><\/h3>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Ensure that the brackets you use don\u2019t follow either of the parentheses rules explained in <a href=\"#\">\u00a75.3.5<\/a> above.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I know house centipedes [<\/em>scutigera coleoptrata<em>] are ugly, but I\u2019m sure you would much rather have them in your home than the vermin they feed on.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>I know house centipedes (<\/em>scutigera coleoptrata<em>) are ugly, but I\u2019m sure you would much rather have them in your home than the vermin they feed on.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The incorrect example above mistakenly uses brackets around the parenthetical Latin name of the insect identified just before by its common name. Following <a href=\"#pr11\">Parentheses Rule 1.1<\/a>, however, you would just replace the brackets with parentheses.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#536\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Brackets<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"br2\"><\/a>Brackets Rule 2:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put brackets around parenthetical elements within parentheses.<\/h3>\n<p>Use brackets whenever you have parenthetical elements within a phrase or clause that is already surrounded by parentheses.<\/p>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Though \u201ctext neck\u201d is controversial (some argue that it was only ever a chiropractors\u2019 marketing gimmick <a href=\"https:\/\/vitals.lifehacker.com\/text-neck-was-never-a-real-epidemic-1822024249\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">[Skwarecki, 2018]<\/a>), it makes sense that neck strain sustained for several hours daily harms our musculoskeletal health.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The brackets mark off an in-text citation within a parenthetical statement. If not within parentheses, the citation would be framed by parentheses instead of brackets.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>Brackets help the reader keep track of nested parenthetical elements. Switching to brackets for parenthetical elements within parentheses also helps avoid the awkwardness of \u201cdouble-chin\u201d parentheses such as \u201c)).\u201d<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look to make sure that you don\u2019t double up parentheses with \u201c))\u201d anywhere in your document.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The snake-oil rhetoric of Dr. Fishman\u2019s website undermines the credibility of his \u201ctext neck\u201d concept (with a chronic lack of proper citations for research supporting his claims <a href=\"http:\/\/text-neck.com\/anatomy-and-effects-of-texting.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">(Fishman, 2018)<\/a>).<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>The snake-oil rhetoric of Dr. Fishman\u2019s website undermines the credibility of his \u201ctext neck\u201d concept (with a chronic lack of proper citations for research supporting his claims <a href=\"http:\/\/text-neck.com\/anatomy-and-effects-of-texting.html\">[Fishman, 2018]<\/a>).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the incorrect sentence above, parentheses are used within parentheses. Simply replace the inner parentheses with brackets.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#536\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Brackets<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><a id=\"br3\"><\/a>Brackets Rule 3:\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Put brackets around IEEE-style numerical in-text citations crediting research sources.<b><\/b><\/h3>\n<h4>Correct:<\/h4>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Physiopedia recommends holding up your mobile device so that it\u2019s level with your eyes and avoiding \u201cprolonged static postures\u201d <a href=\"https:\/\/www.physio-pedia.com\/Text_Neck\">[4]<\/a>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><strong>Why it\u2019s correct:<\/strong> The brackets mark off an IEEE-style numerical in-text citation.<\/p>\n<h4>How This Helps the Reader<\/h4>\n<p>The brackets tell the reader that the quotation, paraphrase, or summary came from the research source numbered within the brackets. The reader can then consult the References section at the back and easily find the full bibliographical reference for that source by the corresponding number (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/3-5-documenting-sources-in-apa-mla-or-ieee-styles#354\/\">\u00a73.5.4<\/a> above for more on IEEE-style citations and references).<\/p>\n<h4>What to Look for When Proofreading<\/h4>\n<p>Look to make sure that you use brackets rather than parentheses if your documentation style is IEEE, as opposed to APA or MLA, which use parentheses.<\/p>\n<h5>Incorrect:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Shoshany argues that \u201cText neck\u201d results from people straining their necks hunched over cellphones for several more hours per day, and thousands more per year, than they would if they were just reading books (5).<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The fix:<\/h5>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><em>Shoshany argues that \u201cText neck\u201d results from people straining their necks hunched over cellphones for several more hours per day, and thousands more per year, than they would if they were just reading books <a href=\"https:\/\/www.spine-health.com\/blog\/modern-spine-ailment-text-neck\">[5]<\/a>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>In the incorrect example above, parentheses are used rather than brackets to mark off an in-text citation. The correct in-text citation style for IEEE is to use brackets instead.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#536\">Return to <strong>Quick Rules: Brackets<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>For more on brackets, see the following resources:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/brackets.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Punctuation Guide\u2019s Brackets page<\/a> (Penn, 2011f)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/parens.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Grammar Book\u2019s Parentheses and Brackets page<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/question_marks_1.asp\">Question Marks, Quotation Marks, and Parentheses Quiz 1<\/a> linked at the bottom (Straus, 2014c)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><a id=\"537\"><\/a>5.3.7: Quotation Marks<b><\/b><\/h1>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-98\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/quotes-300x216.png\" alt=\"Double quotation marks and single quotation marks\" width=\"300\" height=\"216\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/quotes-300x216.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/quotes-65x47.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/quotes-225x162.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/quotes-350x252.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2023\/10\/quotes.png 430w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/>Quotation marks are mostly used to set reported speech or text apart from the author\u2019s words. They essentially say, \u201cThese are someone else\u2019s words, not mine.\u201d But some writers confuse double quotation marks (simply called \u201cquotation marks\u201d here) with single quotation marks, as well as misplace punctuation around quotation marks, so let\u2019s focus on when and how to use quotation marks, as well as single quotation marks, properly. Since the absence of quotation marks when using research sources in your document can result in plagiarism (see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/3-4-using-source-text-quoting-paraphrasing-and-summarizing#341\/\">\u00a73.4.1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/3-5-documenting-sources-in-apa-mla-or-ieee-styles#351\/\">\u00a73.5.1<\/a> above), knowing how to use them correctly is vitally important to your success as a student and professional.<b><\/b><\/p>\n<h2>Quick Rules: Quotation Marks<\/h2>\n<p>Click on the rules below to see further explanations, examples, advice on what to look for when proofreading, and demonstrations of how to correct common quotation mark errors associated with each one.<\/p>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.1<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Use quotation marks to indicate reported speech or text.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>She said, \u201c<strong>P<\/strong>ut the G-8320 form on the shared drive,\u201d not in your personal Dropbox, \u201c<strong>s<\/strong>o that it\u2019s available to all the associates.\u201d<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.2<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Use quotation marks in pairs to begin and end a quotation.<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.3<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Use a comma between a verb (or verb phrase) introducing a quotation and the quotation itself.<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.4<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Capitalize the first letter in a quotation unless it\u2019s only a fragment of one.<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.5<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Place periods and commas <em>before<\/em> the closing quotation mark, not after.<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.6<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Place colons and semicolons <em>after the closing quotation mark, not before.<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>Like the main character in the 1998 Coen Brothers\u2019 film<\/em> The Big Lebowski, <em>\u201cthe dude abides\u201d; in other words, I\u2019ll be compliant.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.7<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Place question and exclamation marks <em>before<\/em> the closing quotation mark if they\u2019re part of the quotation and <em>after<\/em> if they\u2019re part of the sentence framing the quotation.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>I thought you were kidding when you asked, \u201cHow can I help?\u201d!<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.8<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Quote exactly what\u2019s between quotation marks; otherwise, use brackets to indicate changes made to words and ellipses for omissions.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>Prime Minister Trudeau insisted that \u201cBilingualism [was] not an imposition on the citizens. . . . [It was] an imposition on the state\u201d <\/em>(Problems of Journalism, 1966).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 1.9<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Don\u2019t use quotation marks around a paraphrase (a.k.a. indirect quotation).<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>Prime Minister Trudeau insisted that the people were forcing two official languages on the country rather than the other way around.<\/em> (no quotation marks around the indirectly quoted speech)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 2<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Use quotation marks as \u201cscare quotes\u201d to draw attention to the way a word or phrase is used by others.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>You can\u2019t simply \u201cphone this one in\u201d because too many people will be depending on you doing this right.<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 3<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Use single quotation marks only for reported speech within a quotation.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>The interviewer then asked, \u201cWhat did you mean when you said, in 1997, \u2018The great thing about the hockey world is that there are a lot of people with loose lips\u2019?\u201d (<a href=\"http:\/\/nationalpost.com\/sports\/hockey\/nhl\/20-questions-with-tsns-bob-mckenzie-rivalry-with-sportsnet-crazy-hockey-parents-and-calling-the-cops-on-phil-esposito\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Fitz-Gerald, 2015<\/a>).<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Quotation Marks Rule 4<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 70%\"><strong>Use quotation marks around the title of a short work within a larger work such as an article in a magazine or journal, webpage in a website, chapter in a book, song on an album, short film or TV episode in a series, etc.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>The article \u201cBill Gates and Steve Jobs Raised Their Kids Tech-free\u2014and It Should Have Been a Red Flag\u201d (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/screen-time-limits-bill-gates-steve-jobs-red-flag-2017-10?utm_content=buffer3d073&amp;utm_medium=social&amp;utm_source=facebook.com&amp;utm_campaign=buffer-ti\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Weller, 2018<\/a>) made me reflect on my own technology addiction. <\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>For more on quotations, see <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/chapter\/3-4-using-source-text-quoting-paraphrasing-and-summarizing#341\/\">\u00a73.4.1<\/a> above and the following resources:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=973\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Guide to Grammar and Writing\u2019s Quotation Marks page<\/a>, along with the digital-activity exercises at the bottom of the page (Darling, 2014i)<\/li>\n<li>The Purdue OWL\u2019s series of modules, starting with <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/577\/01\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">How to Use Quotation Marks <\/a>(Conrey, Pepper, &amp; Brizee, 2017) and ending with the exercises in the fifth module<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/quotes.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Grammar Book\u2019s Quotation Marks page<\/a> and its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/question_marks_1.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Question Marks, Quotation Marks, and Parentheses Quiz 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/question_marks_2.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Question Marks, Quotation Marks, and Parentheses Quiz 2<\/a> linked at the bottom (Straus, 2007a).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><a id=\"538\"><\/a>5.3.8: Hyphens<b><\/b><\/h1>\n<p>Using hyphens between two or more words in combination helps the reader treat them as if they were one word when the words around them would create ambiguity without the hyphen(s). We do this especially with compound modifiers, which are two or more adjectives that modify the same noun in combination. For instance, if you said that there was funding available for small business owners, does that mean funding is only available for people who are under five feet tall? (In that case, \u201cbusiness owners\u201d is read as a compound noun and \u201csmall\u201d is the adjective modifying it.) If you mean that funding is available for business owners who employ fewer than 15 people, then you want to use the compound-modifier hyphen to pair up \u201csmall\u201d and \u201cbusiness\u201d so that they are read as if they were one adjective modifying the noun \u201cowners\u201d: <em>small-business owners<\/em>. Hyphens help the reader by guiding them toward what words to pair up when it could go either way.<\/p>\n<p>The same is true of hyphens used in compound nouns. Saying, \u201cIt was a light year\u201d means something completely different from \u201cIt was a light-year.\u201d In the first case, you\u2019re saying that nothing much happened that year; in the second, you\u2019re saying that something spanned nearly ten trillion kilometres. Hyphens matter!<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/ruthlesseditor.com\/compound-modifiers\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/ruthlesseditor.com\/compound-modifiers\/<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca\/tcdnstyl-chap?lang=eng&amp;lettr=chapsect2&amp;info0=2\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca\/tcdnstyl-chap?lang=eng&amp;lettr=chapsect2&amp;info0=2<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"5381\"><\/a>5.3.8.1: Compound-modifier Hyphens<\/h2>\n<p>The most common use of hyphens is for compound modifiers\u2014that is, two or more adjectives that must be read in combination before a noun they describe. In fact, the hyphen you see between \u201ccompound\u201d and \u201cmodifier\u201d in the sentence above exemplifies how this works: since both of those words together (and in that order only) modify the noun \u201chyphen\u201d (\u201cmodify\u201d meaning that they tell you what kind of hyphen it is), the hyphen helps the reader identify which words functions as modifiers and which as nouns, since \u201cmodifier\u201d in this case behaves as an adjective rather than a noun. Without the hyphen, the reader might make the mistake of taking \u201cmodifier hyphen\u201d as a compound noun, as in the case of \u201csmall business owners\u201d above.<\/p>\n<p>If you were to say that the USSR was the first second world country to de-communize, the combination \u201cfirst second\u201d would surely trip up the reader. But pairing \u201csecond\u201d and \u201cworld\u201d with a hyphen resolves the ambiguity to say \u201cThe USSR was the first second-world country to de-communize.\u201d<b><\/b><\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"t5381a\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1a: Common First-term Nouns in Compound Modifiers<\/h2>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Noun<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following a Noun<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>bottom-<\/strong><br \/>\nor<br \/>\n<strong>top-<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>bottom-<\/strong>feeding fish<br \/>\n<strong>top-<\/strong>shelf liquor<br \/>\n<strong>top-<\/strong>tier player<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Those fish are <strong>bottom feeding<\/strong>.<br \/>\nAll your liquor is <strong>top-shelf<\/strong>.<br \/>\nThe players we churn out are all <strong>top-tier<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>high-<\/strong><br \/>\nor<br \/>\n<strong>low-<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>high-<\/strong>calibre bullet<br \/>\n<strong>low-<\/strong>cost solution<br \/>\n<strong>high-<\/strong>fidelity sound<br \/>\n<strong>low-<\/strong>life criminal<br \/>\n<strong>high-<\/strong>quality products<br \/>\n<strong>low-<\/strong>resolution screen<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Most of the bullets found were high <strong>calibre<\/strong>.<br \/>\nLet\u2019s find a solution that\u2019s <strong>low-cost<\/strong>.<br \/>\nI want a sound that\u2019s more high <strong>fidelity<\/strong>.<br \/>\nHe is a total <strong>low-life<\/strong>.<br \/>\nWe ship products that are mostly <strong>high quality<\/strong>.<br \/>\nDon\u2019t use pictures with <strong>low resolution<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>self-<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>self-<\/strong>driven woman<br \/>\n<strong>self-<\/strong>inflicted wound<br \/>\n<strong>self-<\/strong>motivated boy<br \/>\n<strong>self-<\/strong>taught pilot<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">She is very <strong>self-driven<\/strong>.<br \/>\nWe don\u2019t treat wounds that are <strong>self-inflicted<\/strong>.<br \/>\nHe is not <strong>self-motivated<\/strong> enough.<br \/>\nI am totally <strong>self-taught<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>well-<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>well-<\/strong>known solution<br \/>\n<strong>well-<\/strong>thought-out plan<br \/>\n<strong>well-<\/strong>trained army<br \/>\n<strong>well-<\/strong>written letter<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The solution is very <strong>well known<\/strong>.<br \/>\nMy plan is very <strong>well thought out<\/strong>.<br \/>\nWe\u2019re no match for an army so <strong>well trained<\/strong>.<br \/>\nOnly send the letter if it is <strong>well written<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><a id=\"#t5381b\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1b: Common Adverbs in Compound Modifiers<\/h2>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Noun<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following a Noun<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>fast-<\/strong><br \/>\nor<br \/>\n<strong>slow-<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>Fast-<\/strong>moving process<br \/>\n<strong>Slow-<\/strong>motion replay<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The process is <strong>fast-moving<\/strong> after that.<br \/>\nLet\u2019s review the goal in <strong>slow motion<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>well-<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>well-<\/strong>chosen words<br \/>\n<strong>well-<\/strong>known solution<br \/>\n<strong>well-<\/strong>thought-out plan<br \/>\n<strong>well-<\/strong>trained army<br \/>\n<strong>well-<\/strong>written letter<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Your words were all <strong>well-chosen<\/strong>.<br \/>\nThe solution is very <strong>well known<\/strong>.<br \/>\nMy plan is very <strong>well thought out<\/strong>.<br \/>\nWe\u2019re no match for an army so<strong> well trained<\/strong>.<br \/>\nOnly send the letter if it is<strong> well written<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Exception: Don\u2019t add hyphens after adverbs ending in <em>-ly<\/em>.<b><\/b><\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"#t5381c\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1c: Common Prefixes Making Compound Modifiers<\/h2>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Prefix<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following a Noun<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>all-<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>all-<\/strong>inclusive resort<br \/>\n<strong>all-<\/strong>powerful tech giant<br \/>\n<strong>all-<\/strong>out offensive<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Let\u2019s just go to an <strong>all-inclusive<\/strong>.<br \/>\nGoogle\u2019s dominance has made it<strong> all-powerful<\/strong>.<br \/>\nWe sent everyone so our offensive was <strong>all-out<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><a id=\"#t5381d\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1d: Common Middle-term Prepositions in Three-part Compound Modifiers<\/h2>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Preposition<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Without a Noun Following<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-at-<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Stay<strong>-at-<\/strong>home mom<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">You work and I\u2019ll just <strong>stay at home<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-by-<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">case<strong>-by-<\/strong>case basis<br \/>\nsix<strong>-by-<\/strong>six rule<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">We\u2019re just taking it case by case.<br \/>\nFollow the rule called \u201csix by six\u201d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-for-<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">word<strong>-for-<\/strong>word translation<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Don\u2019t copy <strong>word for word<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-of-<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Cost<strong>-of-<\/strong>living index<br \/>\nOut<strong>-of-<\/strong>province funding<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The <strong>cost of living<\/strong> is always rising.<br \/>\nThe funding came from <strong>out of province<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-on-<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">one<strong>-on-<\/strong>one game<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Let\u2019s play <strong>one on one<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-to-<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Back<strong>-to-<\/strong>back classes<br \/>\nbusiness<strong>-to-<\/strong>business retailer<br \/>\ncoast<strong>-to-<\/strong>coast flight<br \/>\neasy<strong>-to-<\/strong>follow presentation<br \/>\nup<strong>-to-<\/strong>date calendar<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">My two classes today are <strong>back to back<\/strong>.<br \/>\nOur sales are B2B (<strong>business to business<\/strong>).<br \/>\nI\u2019m flying <strong>coast to coast<\/strong> tonight.<br \/>\nYour presentation was very easy to follow.<br \/>\nMy calendar is all <strong>up to date<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><a id=\"t5381e\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1e: Common Three-part Compound-modifier Phrases<\/h2>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Examples<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Without a Noun Following<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Long-drawn-out <\/strong>affair<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The affairs would all be long drawn out.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Off-the-charts<\/strong> happiness<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I wish you happiness that is totally off the charts.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>On-the-job<\/strong> training<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">All of the training will be done on the job.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><a id=\"t5381f\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1f: Common Foreign-phrase Compound Modifiers<\/h2>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Examples<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Without a Noun Following<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Avant-garde<\/strong> filmmaker<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">His latest film is more avant garde.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Laissez-faire<\/strong> capitalism<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Our approach is fairly laissez faire.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Don\u2019t hyphenate more recently imported foreign phrases that are still italicized.<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"t5381g\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1g: Common End-term Nouns in Compound Modifiers<\/h2>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Noun<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Without a Noun Following<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-class<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">first<strong>-class<\/strong> cabin<br \/>\nsecond<strong>-class<\/strong> citizen<br \/>\neconomy<strong>-class<\/strong> seating<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I\u2019m going first <strong>class<\/strong>.<br \/>\nThey treated me like I was second <strong>class<\/strong>.<br \/>\nWe bought economy <strong>class<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-degree<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">first<strong>-degree<\/strong> burns<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I had burns in only the first <strong>degree<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-interest<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Special<strong>-interest<\/strong> groups<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">All of those groups are special <strong>interest<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-ready<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Game<strong>-ready<\/strong> athlete<br \/>\nJob<strong>-ready<\/strong> graduate<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">All of our kids are game<strong>-ready<\/strong>.<br \/>\nMy training makes me fully job<strong>-ready<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-scale<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Large<strong>-scale<\/strong> project<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I\u2019ve never done a project this large <strong>scale.<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-time<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">full<strong>-time<\/strong> job<br \/>\nhalf<strong>-time <\/strong>show<br \/>\npart<strong>-time<\/strong> employment<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">She works full <strong>time<\/strong>.<br \/>\nLet\u2019s talk about it at half <strong>time<\/strong>.<br \/>\nWe work part <strong>time<\/strong> on weekends.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><a id=\"t5381h\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1h: Common Past-participles Following Nouns<\/h2>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Past Participle<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following the Noun<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-based<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">evidence<strong>-based<\/strong> treatment<br \/>\nfaith<strong>-based<\/strong> reasoning<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The treatment is evidence<strong>-based<\/strong>.<br \/>\nThe programming is all faith<strong>-based<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-bodied<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Able<strong>-bodied<\/strong> teenager<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">You\u2019re able<strong>-bodied<\/strong> enough.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-capped<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Snow<strong>-capped<\/strong> mountains<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The mountains are nicely snow<strong>-capped<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-edged<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">double<strong>-edged <\/strong>sword<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">That sword is doubled <strong>edged<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-eyed<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">cross<strong>-eyed<\/strong> goofball<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">She went cross<strong>-eyed<\/strong> after a mule kick.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-faced<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Two<strong>-faced<\/strong> charlatan<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">That guy is so two<strong>-faced<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-filled<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">garbage<strong>-filled<\/strong> bins<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Those bins are all garbage <strong>filled<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-focused<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">solution<strong>-focused<\/strong> apology<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The apology was solution <strong>focused<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-footed<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Fleet<strong>-footed<\/strong> deliverer<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The delivery man is fleet<strong>-footed<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-handed<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Left<strong>-handed<\/strong> writer<br \/>\nRight-handed stick<br \/>\nShort-handed goal<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">We want a writer who is left <strong>handed<\/strong>.<br \/>\nPass me a stick that\u2019s right <strong>handed<\/strong>.<br \/>\nThe goal was short<strong>-handed<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-oriented<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">audience<strong>-oriented<\/strong> writing<br \/>\nclient<strong>-oriented<\/strong> response<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The writing is more audience<strong>-oriented<\/strong>.<br \/>\nMake it more client<strong>-oriented<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-sided<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">many<strong>-sided<\/strong> issue<br \/>\neight<strong>-sided<\/strong> dice<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The issue is many <strong>sided<\/strong>.<br \/>\nThis dice is eight<strong>-sided<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-willed<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Strong-willed daughter<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">My daughter sure is <strong>strong-willed<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><a id=\"t5381i\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1i: Common End-term Present-participle and Gerund Compound-modifier Adjectives<\/h2>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Present Participle<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following the Noun<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-bearing<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">child<strong>-bearing<\/strong> hips<br \/>\nload<strong>-bearing<\/strong> walls<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">These hips are child<strong>-bearing<\/strong>.<br \/>\nDon\u2019t remove walls that are load <strong>bearing<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-ending<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">never<strong>-ending<\/strong> happiness<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I hope your happiness is <strong>never ending<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-jerking<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Tear<strong>-jerking<\/strong> performance<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The performance was tear<strong>-jerking<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-making<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">decision<strong>-making<\/strong> process<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I\u2019m good at decision <strong>making<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-sharing<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">profit<strong>-sharing<\/strong> plan<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Profit sharing<\/strong> is a strong incentive.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-solving<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">problem<strong>-solving<\/strong> skills<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">My best skill is <strong>problem solving<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-sounding<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Odd<strong>-sounding<\/strong> name<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Their names are all <strong>odd sounding<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-speaking<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">English<strong>-speaking<\/strong> world<br \/>\nFrench<strong>-speaking<\/strong> politician<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Those areas are English<strong>-speaking<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-talking<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Smooth<strong>-talking<\/strong> sales rep<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">He was fairly smooth<strong>-talking<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-wrenching<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Gut<strong>-wrenching<\/strong> scene<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The scene was so gut<strong>-wrenching<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><a id=\"t5381j\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1j: Common End-term Preposition Compound-modifier Adjectives<\/h2>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Preposition<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following the Noun<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-after<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">sought<strong>-after<\/strong> jobs<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">These jobs are highly sought<strong>-after<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-by<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">drive<strong>-by<\/strong> shooting<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Last night\u2019s shooting was a drive<strong>-by<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-down<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Trickle<strong>-down<\/strong> economics<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">That wealth didn\u2019t quite trickle <strong>down<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-out<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">All<strong>-out<\/strong> war<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The war went <strong>all-out<\/strong> after a year.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-up<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">made<strong>-up<\/strong> names<br \/>\nbuilt<strong>-up <\/strong>neighbourhood<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Those names sound so made <strong>up<\/strong>.<br \/>\nThe area is more built <strong>up<\/strong> now.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><a id=\"t5381k\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.1k: Common Number + Time-period Compound Modifiers<\/h2>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Duration<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following the Noun<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-day<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Five<strong>-day<\/strong> trial period<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The trial period lasts five <strong>days<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-hour<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Eleventh<strong>-hour<\/strong> bid<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The bid came in the eleventh <strong>hour<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-minute<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">25<strong>-minute<\/strong> presentation<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The presentation lasted 25 <strong>minutes<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-month<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Ten<strong>-month<\/strong> term<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The term ends after ten <strong>months<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-second<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Nine<strong>-second<\/strong> sprint<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">He finished in under ten <strong>seconds<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-week<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">32<strong>-week<\/strong> co-op term<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The co-op term is 32 <strong>weeks<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-year<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Four<strong>-year<\/strong> degree program<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">An applied degree takes four <strong>years<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The second second-rate actor<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">the director wanted the second actor to be second rate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The film\u2019s 15-week run shattered box-office records<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The film shattered box-office records with its run of 15 weeks<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Two-way street<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">that street goes two ways<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">After-tax income<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Our income after taxes is laughable.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Duty-free goods<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">First-come-first-served basis<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Garbage-filled streets<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Gut-wrenching scene<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Large-scale development<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Many-sided issue<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Mountain-climbing enthusiast<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Odd-sounding name<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">One-trick pony<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">This pony has only one trick<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">one-sentence paragraph<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">That paragraph only has one sentence.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Out-of-province funding<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">We went out of province for our funding.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Pay-as-you-go plan<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">We selected a plan that would have us pay as we go.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Quick-witted lady<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Short-handed goal<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Smooth-talking salesman<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Snow-capped mountains<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Soon-to-be graduate<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Strong-willed grandma<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Two-faced charlatan<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Tax-exempt services<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Tear-jerking performance<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Time-consuming activity<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Trickle-down economics<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Claiming that wealth will trickle down is irresponsible.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">User-friendly design<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Would-be writer<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>But some have become one word, like handwritten and handmade, standalone<\/p>\n<h3>Compound adjectival Numbers<\/h3>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Two-thirds majority<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">two thirds of the respondents<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Two-year-old child<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">the child is two years old<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I\u2019ve got ninety-nine problems, and grammar ain\u2019t one.<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Pass the puck to number ninety-nine.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3>Suspended Hyphens<\/h3>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The 12- and 13-year-old kids<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">the kids are 12 and 13 years old<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The well-known and -loved song<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">the song became well known and loved<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">How to treat first-, second-, and third-degree burns<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">the burns were first, second, and third degree<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Funding for medium- to large-scale businesses<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Scores in the six- to seven-point range<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3>Prefixes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Big hair in the mid-1980s<\/li>\n<li>Populism results in new accusations of anti-Americanism (because \u201cAmerica\u201d is capitalized)<\/li>\n<li>My ex-girlfriend and I haven\u2019t spoken in a decade<\/li>\n<li>I re-wrote the essay<\/li>\n<li>e-mail<\/li>\n<li><strong>Not with adverbs ending in <em>-ly<\/em><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Compound Nouns<\/h2>\n<p>Again, anything starting with \u201cself-\u201d (e.g., self-starter, self-esteem, self-care), \u201cgreat-\u201d (e.g., great-grandmother, great-uncle), or ending with \u201c-in-law\u201d (e.g., mother-in-law, sister-in-law) and numbers above 20 (twenty-one, forty-three). If someone said that you have poor people skills, does that mean you have skill in dealing with poor people? By hyphenating \u201cpeople-skills,\u201d they make it clear that you could be better at dealing with people in general.<\/p>\n<h3><a id=\"t5382a\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.2a:\u00a0Common Compound Units of Measurement<\/h3>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Unit<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following a Noun<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-hours<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">Kilowatt<strong>-hours<\/strong><br \/>\nWork<strong>-hours<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I\u2019ve racked up a few <strong>kilowatt-hours<\/strong> this winter.<br \/>\nThis project should take about 20 <strong>work-hours<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-miles<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">air<strong>-miles<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Do you collect <strong>air-miles<\/strong>?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>-year<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\">light<strong>-year<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">The next star is about _ <strong>light-years<\/strong> away.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3><a id=\"t5382b\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.2b: Common Prefixes Making Compound Nouns<\/h3>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 20%\">Prefix<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 30%\">Examples<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Not Following a Noun<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>all-<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>all-<\/strong>inclusive resort<br \/>\n<strong>all-<\/strong>powerful tech giant<br \/>\n<strong>all-<\/strong>out offensive<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Let\u2019s just go to an <strong>all-inclusive<\/strong>.<br \/>\nGoogle\u2019s dominance has made it <strong>all-powerful<\/strong>.<br \/>\nWe sent everyone so our offensive was <strong>all-out<\/strong>.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>ex-<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>ex-<\/strong>girlfriend<br \/>\n<strong>ex-<\/strong>parrot<br \/>\n<strong>ex-<\/strong>premier Harcourt<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I haven\u2019t talked to my <strong>ex-<\/strong>girlfriend in ten years.<br \/>\nThat bird is dead. It is an <strong>ex-<\/strong>parrot.<br \/>\nThe <strong>ex-<\/strong>premier will be meeting with us today.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\"><strong>self-<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 30%\"><strong>self-<\/strong>control<br \/>\n<strong>self-<\/strong>loathing<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">I\u2019m exercising some <strong>self-control<\/strong> here.<br \/>\nI follow up my dessert with a little <strong>self-loathing<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3><a id=\"t5382c\"><\/a>Table 5.3.8.2c: Common Three- or Four-term Compound Nouns<\/h3>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Compound Noun<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 50%\">Plural<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">forget-me<strong>-not<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">forget-me<strong>-nots<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Jack-<\/strong>of-all-trades<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Jacks-<\/strong>of-all-trades<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>mother-<\/strong>in-law<br \/>\n<strong>father-<\/strong>in-law<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>mothers-<\/strong>in-law<br \/>\n<strong>fathers-<\/strong>in-law<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Ne\u2019er-do<strong>-well<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Ne\u2019er-do<strong>-wells<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Stick-<\/strong>in-the-mud<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>sticks-<\/strong>in-the-mud<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>Writer-<\/strong>in-residence<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\"><strong>writers-<\/strong>in-residence<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Box-office<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">box-offices<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Fixer-upper<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">fixer-uppers<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Great-grandfather<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Great-grandfathers<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Court-martial<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">courts-martial<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Vice-president<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">vice-presidents<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Tractor-trailer<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">tractor-trailers<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Cabinet-maker<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">cabinet-makers<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Singer-songwriter<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">singer-songwriters<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">City-state<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">city-states<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">A has-been<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">has-beens<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">Sing-along<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">sing-alongs<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Some words have become one word like headache, checkout, chequebook, uproar, downpour, input, sunrise, clearinghouse, bookkeeper, housekeeper, sightseeing, shipbuilding, cabinetmaker, blackboard, redhead, workplace, and even email<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.capstoneediting.com.au\/blog\/how-to-hyphenate-a-compound-noun\">https:\/\/www.capstoneediting.com.au\/blog\/how-to-hyphenate-a-compound-noun<\/a><\/p>\n<h2>Compound Verbs<\/h2>\n<p>Usually pairing a noun with a verb, but some are now combined into one word.<\/p>\n<table style=\"width: 100%;border-collapse: collapse\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 33.33%\">With hyphens<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 33.33%\">One-word compounds<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 33.33%\">Two words (verb + preposition)<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 33.33%\">to air-condition<br \/>\nto baby-sit<br \/>\nto colour-code<br \/>\nto copy-edit<br \/>\nto double-check<br \/>\nto double-click<br \/>\nto dry-clean<br \/>\nto Google-search<br \/>\nto hand-wash<br \/>\nto ice-skate<br \/>\nto proof-edit<br \/>\nto reverse-engineer<br \/>\nto second-guess<br \/>\nto spot-check<br \/>\nto test-drive<br \/>\nto window-shop<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 33.33%\">to downgrade<br \/>\nto ghostwrite<br \/>\nto handpick<br \/>\nto handwrite<br \/>\nto multitask<br \/>\nto proofread<br \/>\nto shortchange<br \/>\nto troubleshoot<br \/>\nto waterproof<br \/>\nto whitewash<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 33.33%\">To check out<br \/>\nTo log in<br \/>\nTo step up<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.proofreadnow.com\/blog\/bid\/29485\/Grammar-Usage-Compound-Verbs\">Grammar Usage \u2013 Compound Verbs<\/a> (Jamieson, 2010)<\/p>\n<p>For more on hyphens, see the following resources:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=938\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>\u2019s Hyphens page<\/a> and digital-activity punctuation exercises linked at the bottom (Darling, 2014j)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/576\/01\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>Purdue OWL<\/em>\u2019s Hyphen Use<\/a> (Conrey &amp; Stolley, 2013)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/hyphen.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Punctuation Guide\u2019<\/em>s Hyphens page<\/a> (Penn, 2011g)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/hyphens.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Grammar Book<\/em>\u2019s Hyphens page<\/a> and its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/hyphens_advanced_1.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Hyphens Quiz 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/hyphens_advanced_2.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Hyphens Quiz 2<\/a> at the bottom of the page (Straus, 2007b)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/p>\n<h1><a id=\"539\"><\/a>5.3.9: Long Dashes<\/h1>\n<p>For more on long dashes, see the following resources:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=912\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>\u2019s Dashes<\/a> page and digital-activity punctuation exercises linked at the bottom (Darling, 2014k)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/977\/05\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>Purdue OWL<\/em>\u2019s Punctuation\u2014Hyphens and Dashes<\/a> page (Cimasko, 2013)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/hyphen-and-dashes.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>\u2019s Hyphen and Dashes<\/a> page (Penn, 2011h)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/dashes.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Grammar Book<\/em>\u2019s Dashes<\/a> page (Straus, 2018b)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/p>\n<h1><a id=\"5310\"><\/a>5.3.10: Question Marks<\/h1>\n<p>Question marks obviously follow questions. However, if the question is a polite request for action rather than one where a Yes or No answer is expected\u2014i.e., a rhetorical question\u2014end the sentence with a period rather than a question mark <a href=\"https:\/\/www.proofreadnow.com\/blog\/polite-requests\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">(Jamieson, 2014)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>For more on long dashes, see the following resources:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=963\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>\u2019s Question Marks<\/a> page (Darling, 2014l)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/question-mark.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>\u2019s Question Mark<\/a> page (Penn, 2012)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/qMarks.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Grammar Book<\/em>\u2019s Question Marks<\/a> page and its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/question_marks_1.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Question Marks, Quotation Marks, and Parentheses Quiz 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/grammar_quiz\/question_marks_2.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Question Marks, Quotation Marks, and Parentheses Quiz 2<\/a> linked at the bottom (Straus, 2014d)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/p>\n<h1><a id=\"5311\"><\/a>5.3.11: Exclamation Marks<\/h1>\n<p>For more on exclamation marks, which should be used sparingly, see the following resources:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=931\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>\u2019s Exclamation Marks<\/a> page (Darling, 2014m)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/exclamation-point.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>\u2019s Exclamation Point<\/a> page (Penn, 2011i)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/exclaim.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Grammar Book<\/em>\u2019s Exclamation Points page<\/a> (Straus, 2015b)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/p>\n<h1><a id=\"5312\"><\/a>5.3.12: Periods<\/h1>\n<p>For more on periods, see the following resources:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=954\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>\u2019s Periods page<\/a> and digital-activity punctuation exercises linked at the bottom (Darling, 2014n)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/period.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>\u2019s Period page<\/a> (Penn, 2011h)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/periods.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>The Grammar Book<\/em>\u2019s Periods<\/a> page (Straus, 2014e)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"#menu\">Return to the Complete List of Punctuation Covered in This Chapter Section<\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Key Takeaway<\/h3>\n<p>Near the end of the editing stage, proofread for punctuation errors, such as comma and apostrophe misplacement, that would confuse your reader and embarrass yourself.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Exercises<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>Go through the above sections and follow the links to self-check exercises at the end of each section to confirm your mastery of the punctuation rules.<\/li>\n<li>Take any writing assignment you\u2019ve previously submitted for another course, ideally one that you did some time ago, perhaps even in high school. Scan for the punctuation errors covered in this section now that you know what to look for. How often do such errors appear? Correct them following the suggestions given above.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h2>References<\/h2>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Austen, I. (2006, October 25). The comma that costs 1 million dollars (Canadian). <em>The New York Times<\/em>. Retrieved <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2006\/10\/25\/business\/worldbusiness\/25comma.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2006\/10\/25\/business\/worldbusiness\/25comma.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Ayoade, R. [Beggars USA]. (2008, June 25).<em>Vampire Weekend \u2013 Oxford Comma<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=P_i1xk07o4g\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=P_i1xk07o4g<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Bowal, P, &amp; Layton, J. (2014, March 6). Comma law. <em>LawNow: Relating law to life in Canada<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.lawnow.org\/comma-law\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.lawnow.org\/comma-law\/<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Caldwell, D. (2016). Oxford comma. <em>Know Your Meme.<\/em> Retrieved from<a href=\"http:\/\/knowyourmeme.com\/memes\/oxford-comma\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> http:\/\/knowyourmeme.com\/memes\/oxford-comma<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Cimisko, T. (2013, March 22). Punctuation\u2014hyphens and dashes. <em>Purdue OWL<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/977\/05\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/977\/05\/<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Cimisko, T. (2018, April 17). Punctuation\u2014semicolons, colons, and parentheses. <em>Purdue OWL<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/977\/04\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/977\/04\/<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Conrey, S. M., &amp; Stolley, K. (2013, June 7). Hyphen use. <em>Purdue OWL<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/576\/01\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/576\/01\/<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Cu\u00e9llar, J. M., &amp; Lanman, T. H. (2017, June). \u201cText neck\u201d: An epidemic of the modern era of cell phones? <em>The Spine Journal<\/em> 17(6), 901-902. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S1529943017300967\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S1529943017300967<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014a). Conjunctions. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=1566#sub\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=1566#sub<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014b). Phrases. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=3257\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=3257<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014c). Adverbs. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=1543\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=1543<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014d). Clauses. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=3745\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=3745<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014e). Commas. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=898\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=898<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014f). Apostrophes. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=859\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=859<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014g). Colons. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=886\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=886<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014h). Semicolons. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=978\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=978<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014i). Quotation marks. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=973\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=973<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014j). Hyphens. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=938\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=938<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014k). Dashes. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=912\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=912<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014l). Question marks. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=963\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=963<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014m). Exclamation marks. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=931\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=931<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Darling, C. (2014n). Periods. <em>Guide to Grammar and Writing<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=954\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/plato.algonquincollege.com\/applications\/guideToGrammar\/?page_id=954<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Driscoll, D., &amp; Brizee, A. (2018, February 16). Extended rules for using commas. <em>Purdue OWL<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/607\/02\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/607\/02\/<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Fitz-Gerald, S. (2015, May 29). 20 questions with TSN\u2019s Bob McKenzie: Rivalry with Sportsnet, crazy hockey parents and calling the cops on Phil Esposito. <em>National Post<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/nationalpost.com\/sports\/hockey\/nhl\/20-questions-with-tsns-bob-mckenzie-rivalry-with-sportsnet-crazy-hockey-parents-and-calling-the-cops-on-phil-Esposito\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/nationalpost.com\/sports\/hockey\/nhl\/20-questions-with-tsns-bob-mckenzie-rivalry-with-sportsnet-crazy-hockey-parents-and-calling-the-cops-on-phil-Esposito<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Jamieson, P. (2010, January 7). Grammar usage \u2013 compound verbs.<em> ProofreadNOW<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.proofreadnow.com\/blog\/bid\/29485\/Grammar-Usage-Compound-Verbs\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.proofreadnow.com\/blog\/bid\/29485\/Grammar-Usage-Compound-Verbs<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Jamieson, P. (2014, July 16). Polite requests. <em>ProofreadNOW<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.proofreadnow.com\/blog\/polite-requests\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.proofreadnow.com\/blog\/polite-requests<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Keck, R., &amp; Angeli, E. (2018, February 21). Introduction and general usage in defining clauses. <em>Purdue OWL<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/645\/1\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/resource\/645\/1\/<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011a, July 10). Comma. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/comma.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/comma.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011b, December 16). Apostrophe. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/apostrophe.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/apostrophe.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011c, December 16). Colon. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/colon.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/colon.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011d, December 25). Semicolon. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/semicolon.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/semicolon.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011e, December 25). Parentheses. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/parentheses.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/parentheses.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011f, December 16). Brackets. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/brackets.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/brackets.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011g, December 16). Hyphens. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from<a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/hyphen.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/hyphen.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011h, December 16). Hyphen and dashes. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/hyphen-and-dashes.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/hyphen-and-dashes.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011i, December 16). Exclamation point. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/exclamation-point.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/exclamation-point.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2011j, December 16). Period. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/period.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/period.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Penn, J. (2012, January 2). Question mark. <em>The Punctuation Guide<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/question-mark.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.thepunctuationguide.com\/question-mark.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Physiopedia. (2017, October 9). Text neck. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.physio-pedia.com\/Text_Neck\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.physio-pedia.com\/Text_Neck<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Postman, N. (1985). <em>Amusing ourselves to death: Public discourse in the age of show business<\/em>. London: Penguin Books. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/diatropebooks.com\/postman-n-amusing-ourselves-to-death-public-discourse-in-the-age-of-show-business\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/diatropebooks.com\/postman-n-amusing-ourselves-to-death-public-discourse-in-the-age-of-show-business\/<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Purdue OWL. (2010, July 24). Punctuation exercises: Commas. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/exercises\/3\/5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/exercises\/3\/5<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Purdue OWL. (2013, February 22). Apostrophes. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/exercises\/3\/5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/exercises\/3\/5<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Purdue OWL. (n.d.). Exercise: Apostrophes. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/exercises\/3\/3\/10\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/exercises\/3\/3\/10<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">pxhere. (2017, July 4). Zucchini [Image file]. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/pxhere.com\/en\/photo\/1386926\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/pxhere.com\/en\/photo\/1386926<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Simmons, R. L. (2001a, February 1). The participle. <em>Grammar Bytes!<\/em> Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/participle.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/participle.htm<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Simmons, R. L. (2001b, February 1). The appositive. <em>Grammar Bytes!<\/em> Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/appositive.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/appositive.htm<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Simmons, R. L. (2007a, November 24). The transitive verb. <em>Grammar Bytes!<\/em> Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/transitiveverb.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/transitiveverb.htm<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Simmons, R. L. (2007b, November 24). The conjunctive adverb. <em>Grammar Bytes!<\/em> Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/conjunctiveadverb.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/conjunctiveadverb.htm<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Simmons, R. L. (2008, January 24). The intransitive verb. <em>Grammar Bytes!<\/em> Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/intransitiveverb.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/intransitiveverb.htm<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Simmons, R. L. (2018a). Comma tip 6: Use commas correctly with a series of adjectives. <em>Grammar Bytes!<\/em> Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/handouts\/commatip06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/handouts\/commatip06.pdf<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Simmons, R. L. (2018b). The gerund. <em>Grammar Bytes!<\/em> Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/gerund.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.chompchomp.com\/terms\/gerund.htm<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Shoshany, S. (2015, June 11). A modern spine ailment: Text neck. <em>Spine-health<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.spine-health.com\/blog\/modern-spine-ailment-text-neck\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.spine-health.com\/blog\/modern-spine-ailment-text-neck<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Skwarecki, B. (2018, January 12). Text neck was never a real epidemic. <em>Lifehacker<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/vitals.lifehacker.com\/text-neck-was-never-a-real-epidemic-1822024249\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/vitals.lifehacker.com\/text-neck-was-never-a-real-epidemic-1822024249<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2007a, May 30). Quotation marks.<em> The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/quotes.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/quotes.asp<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2007b, May 30). Hyphens. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/hyphens.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/hyphens.asp<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2014a, June 5). Apostrophes. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/apostro.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/apostro.asp<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2014b, June 5). Semicolons. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/semicolons.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/semicolons.asp<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2014c, June 5). Parentheses and brackets. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/parens.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/parens.asp<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2014d, February 18). Question marks. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/qMarks.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/qMarks.asp<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2014e, June 4). Periods. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/periods.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/periods.asp<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2015a, December 5). Colons. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/colons.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/colons.asp<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2015b, December 16). Colons. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/exclaim.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/exclaim.asp<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2018a). Commas. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/commas.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/commas.asp<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Straus, J. (2018b). Dashes. <em>The Grammar Book<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/dashes.asp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.grammarbook.com\/punctuation\/dashes.asp<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Truss, L. (2003). <em>Eats, shoots &amp; leaves: The zero tolerance approach to punctuation<\/em>. New York: Gotham. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/penguinrandomhouse.ca\/books\/294386\/eats-shoots-and-leaves-by-lynne-truss\/excerpt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/penguinrandomhouse.ca\/books\/294386\/eats-shoots-and-leaves-by-lynne-truss\/excerpt<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Weller, C. (2018, January 10). <em>Bill Gates and Steve Jobs raised their kids tech-free \u2014 and it should&#8217;ve been a red flag<\/em>. Business Insider. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/screen-time-limits-bill-gates-steve-jobs-red-flag-2017-10\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/screen-time-limits-bill-gates-steve-jobs-red-flag-2017-10<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Wikipedia. (2018, February 24). List of English contractions. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:List_of_English_contractions\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:List_of_English_contractions<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Wiseman42. (2013, August 10). Cucumber from Denmark [Image file]. <em>Wikimedia Commons<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Cucumber_from_Denmark.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Cucumber_from_Denmark.jpg<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hangingindent\">Write. (2012, April 27). Commas: Coordinate adjectives. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.write.com\/writing-guides\/general-writing\/punctuation\/mastering-the-art-of-comma-usage\/commas-coordinate-adjectives\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.write.com\/writing-guides\/general-writing\/punctuation\/mastering-the-art-of-comma-usage\/commas-coordinate-adjectives\/<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[49],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-99","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","chapter-type-numberless"],"part":86,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/99","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/99\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":261,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/99\/revisions\/261"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/86"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/99\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=99"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=99"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=99"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/cmn279\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=99"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}