{"id":107,"date":"2026-06-16T12:18:34","date_gmt":"2026-06-16T16:18:34","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/disinformationhandbook\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=107"},"modified":"2026-06-19T09:53:10","modified_gmt":"2026-06-19T13:53:10","slug":"the-reference-interview","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/disinformationhandbook\/chapter\/the-reference-interview\/","title":{"raw":"The Reference Interview","rendered":"The Reference Interview"},"content":{"raw":"<strong>Chapter Contents<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"#approaches-to-reference\">5.1 Empathy-based Approaches to Reference Work<\/a>\r\n<a href=\"#building-trust\">5.2 Building Trust with Users<\/a>\r\n<a href=\"#collaboration\">5.3 Building Trust Through Collaboration<\/a>\r\n<a href=\"#empathetic-listening\">5.4 Building Trust Through Empathetic Listening<\/a>\r\n<a href=\"#critical-thinking\">5.5 Strengthening Critical Thinking Through Metacognition<\/a>\r\n<a href=\"#teaching\">5.6 Teaching Metacognition with Socratic Questioning<\/a>\r\n<a href=\"#socratic-questions\">5.7 Socratic Questions for Reference Interviews<\/a>\r\n<a href=\"#reflective-questions\">Reflective Questions<\/a>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<h2><a id=\"approaches-to-reference\"><\/a>5.1 Empathy-based Approaches to Reference Work<\/h2>\r\nThe reference desk or research help appointment are common sites of interaction between the library and learners who may represent a continuum of knowledge or beliefs, from curious learners investigating a claim to full-fledged conspiracists seeking evidence for their theories.\r\n\r\nAs we discussed further in Chapter 1, disinformation and conspiracy theories are appealing in ways that go far beyond logic or reason: they play on much deeper emotions, such as anxiety, resentment, alienation, uncertainty, anger, and fear.[footnote]Stephanie Beene and Katie Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians: Countering Conspiracy Theories in the Age of QAnon,\u201d <em>The Journal of Academic Librarianship<\/em> 47, no. 1 (2021): 5.[\/footnote] They use rhetorical devices that are intentionally designed to trigger these negative emotions, knowing that outrage drives engagement (i.e. rage-baiting).[footnote]Matthew N. Hannah et al., \u201cA Mindfulness-Based Information Literacy Framework for the Current Information Environment,\u201d <em>Journal of Information Literacy<\/em> 18, no. 2 (2024): 39, 43.[\/footnote] Belief in a particular area of disinformation or conspiracy (for example, the belief that vaccines cause autism) can also provide its adherents with a sense of belonging or connection. To turn away from that belief would thus mean a loss of community they may not have elsewhere.[footnote]Stephanie Beene and Katie Greer, \u201cLibrary Workers on the Front Lines\u00a0of Conspiracy Theories in\u00a0the\u00a0US: One Nationwide Survey,\u201d <em>Reference Services Review<\/em> 51, nos. 3\u20134 (2023): 262.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nBy triggering feelings of powerlessness, alienation and us-versus-them, disinformation and conspiracy theories lead their adherents to lose \u201ctrust in established institutions, including universities and libraries,\u201d[footnote]Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 6.[\/footnote] placing the librarian at a disadvantage at the start of a reference interaction.\r\n\r\nIn this section, we introduce several methods of approaching a reference interaction that compliment traditional IL approaches, and can be effective with any learners, including learners invested in disinformation.\r\n\r\nThe first method puts building trust with learners at the centre of the reference interaction. To build trust with learners, a library worker should aim to create a collaborative environment centred on empathetic listening. This kind of environment helps learners grow more comfortable interacting with library workers, and can form the foundation of an ongoing relationship between the learner and the library.\r\n\r\nThe second method aims to instill metacognitive skills in learners through asking questions. Metacognition builds on critical thinking skills, providing learners with the ability to more accurately assess their own knowledge, to be more open-minded, and to shift their views. In asking questions, rather than telling learners what to think, the library worker demonstrates their respect for the learners, positioning themselves as a collaborator in a research journey, and models a technique that learners can use themselves to think through complex questions.\r\n<h2><a id=\"building-trust\"><\/a>5.2 Building Trust with Users<\/h2>\r\nThe core weight of the research appointment depends on the librarian\u2019s performance, namely, whether or not they employ interpersonal skills, practice empathy, and build trust.[footnote]Meika E. Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment: Combating Research Anxiety and Library Stereotypes,\u201d <em>The Reference Librarian<\/em> 61, nos. 3\u20134 (2020): 186.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nLearners, even those comfortable enough to approach a reference desk or make an appointment with a library worker, can still experience feelings of library anxiety or inferiority in the presence of an expert. In taking on the role of an expert, even inadvertently, a library employee may convey an arrogant attitude that results in intimidation or antipathy.[footnote]Mark Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert: A Postmodern Approach to Expertise,\u201d <em>The Reference Librarian<\/em> 42, nos. 87\u201388 (2004): 288.[\/footnote] This imbalance in status between the expert and non-expert can prevent a user from being able to absorb anything discussed in the reference interaction.[footnote]Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 187.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nIn their conversations with library workers, Beene and Greer found that library learners were only receptive to fact-checking, counter-argument, or the introduction of information literacy instruction into reference encounters if the learner was either more curious than ideologically invested in a particular idea, or because the library worker had previously established a relationship based in trust with that learner.[footnote]Beene and Greer, \u201cLibrary Workers on the Front Lines\u00a0of Conspiracy Theories in\u00a0the\u00a0US,\u201d 265.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nIt is therefore crucial for a library worker to be aware of this imbalance, and to be able to bring human-centred and emotionally intelligent qualities such as empathy, responsiveness, interest, friendliness, approachability, enthusiasm, sensitivity, patience, dependability, humour, flexibility, creativity, and a lack of judgment into their work with learners.[footnote]Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 285\u201389, 292.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nBy employing techniques aimed at correcting this imbalance\u2013considering the learner\u2019s perspective and needs, employing active and empathetic listening methods, asking open questions, and creating a positive environment through good humour and interest\u2013a library worker conveys a \u201cnon-expert posture\u201d of acceptance and mutual respect.[footnote]Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 288.[\/footnote] In doing so, they can build the trust necessary to offer corrections to disinformation. This trust can be strengthened even further by developing ongoing relationships with learners, encouraging them to return with further questions or research needs.[footnote]Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 186\u201388; Beene and Greer, \u201cLibrary Workers on the Front Lines\u00a0of Conspiracy Theories in\u00a0the\u00a0US,\u201d 265.[\/footnote]\r\n<h2><a id=\"collaboration\"><\/a>5.3 Building Trust Through Collaboration<\/h2>\r\nBy cultivating a \u201crelational, interdependent, and non-hierarchical manner\u201d[footnote]Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 289.[\/footnote] in their reference interactions and aiming for an approach grounded in collaboration and dialogue,[footnote]Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 292, 273.[\/footnote] a library worker counters the feeling of imbalance between the librarian and the learner, discussed above, and replaces it with conversation, co-construction, and shared inquiry.[footnote]Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 279, 286.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nTo ensure a collaborative reference interaction, the librarian can take the following steps:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Convey to learners that, despite their role in the library, the librarian is not an \u201call-knowing expert\u201d and that the learner brings their own knowledge and familiarity with the topic.<\/strong> By asking the user for brief subject overviews and suggestions for search terms in the course of the conversation, the interaction becomes more of a partnership, with the librarian as the provider of research expertise and the learner as the provider of subject insight.[footnote]Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 192.[\/footnote] The librarian should be careful to not convey a judgmental attitude towards a user\u2019s information-seeking behavior, or to provide the \u201canswer\u201d to their question, instead conveying to the user that they are capable of \u201crecognizing [their] own need and of knowing when useful information has been found to serve it.\u201d[footnote]Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 287, 290.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Avoid excessive jargon, using familiar terms when possible, providing synonyms, brief descriptions, or relatable comparisons when technical terminology is necessary, and offering explanations for how certain conclusions were reached.<\/strong> Matook provides the example of a librarian showing a learner that a source is relevant. In saying this, a definition of relevance could be provided (\u201cthis source matches our research topics and keywords\u201d) and an explanation added (pointing out clues that identify the source as relevant).[footnote]Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 193.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Conclude any reference interaction with sincerity and enthusiasm, finding a way to acknowledge what the learner has achieved over the course of the conversation. <\/strong>The librarian should express gratitude to the learner for stopping by or for making the appointment, conveying that they too got something out of the exchange.[footnote]Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 194.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Extend the relationship beyond the bounds of the reference interaction<\/strong>, offering friendly greetings to learners on campus, or by checking in with learners who have made research appointments in the past during stressful times of the academic year, reminding them of services available from the library.[footnote]Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 194.[\/footnote] As discussed above, cultivating this type of familiar relationship is often the only way to get to a place where users will accept any form of fact-checking or counter-argument.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><a id=\"empathetic-listening\"><\/a>5.4 Building Trust Through Empathetic Listening<\/h2>\r\nBody-language, facial expression, tone of voice, choice of language, and empathetic listening skills are all important when faced with a learner bringing disinformation to a reference interaction.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Establish a bond <\/strong>with the learner and reduce any negative preconceptions by engaging in casual conversation at the start of each reference interaction.[footnote]Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 188.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Insert some \u201ccritical thinking questions<\/strong> into a learner\u2019s line of reasoning to see how open-minded they seem.\u201d If their reaction is defensive or defiant, change the approach.[footnote]Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 6.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Find something to agree on<\/strong>. If possible, identify a shared vested interest and use that to build connection. For example, find the common ground between yourself and a learner invested in vaccine hesitancy - perhaps it\u2019s a desire to make the best possible health decisions for a child.[footnote]Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 6.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Give learners \u201cpermission to be confused.\u201d<\/strong> Let learners know when search processes are difficult or frustrating and that those feelings are valid. Share your own past experiences where you struggled with a similar question as a way to open a space for users to be open about what they don\u2019t understand.[footnote]Kimberly D. Tanner, \u201cPromoting Student Metacognition,\u201d <em>CBE Life Sciences Education<\/em> 11, no. 2 (2012): 117.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Monitor your body language and verbal and facial cues<\/strong> to avoid taking on a defensive or negative posture which can trigger the same emotion in the user. Language strategies include:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Starting with a compliment or positive observation<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Replacing \u201cyou\u201d statements with \u201cI\u201d statements<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Replacing \u201cbut\u201d with \u201cand.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Avoiding terms like \u201cshould\u201d or \u201cought.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li>When necessary finding ways to \u201cdisagree agreeably\u201d[footnote]Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 5.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nBeene and Greer offer the following example of these techniques in action:\r\n\r\nInstead of \u201cYou may think that sentient reptiles control the world in a secret shadow government, but there is no evidence of that,\u201d try, \u201cI understand that is a terrifying thought, and you want to get as much information as possible. Let\u2019s try and look critically at what we can find together.\u201d[footnote]Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 6.[\/footnote]\r\n<h2><a id=\"critical-thinking\"><\/a>5.5 Strengthening Critical Thinking Through Metacognition<\/h2>\r\nAs stated above, traditional information literacy instruction is often ineffective with learners whose thoughts have been impacted by disinformation or conspiracy. In teaching someone to critically evaluate sources, for example, a learner can jump from the healthy skepticism encouraged by library professionals to a suspicion that all sources are not trustworthy. While the traditional approach to teaching information literacy has focused specifically on building critical thinking skills, the fight against disinformation requires an additional layer of skill building - that of metacognition.[footnote]Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 4.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nThere is a close relationship between critical thinking and metacognition, with each skill complementing and reinforcing the other:\r\n\r\nMetacognition involves understanding one's own thinking processes\u2014being aware of how one thinks and learns. Critical thinking, on the other hand, involves analyzing, evaluating, and reasoning about information. Metacognition enables individuals to reflect on their thinking, recognize biases, and monitor their understanding of a subject. These self-awareness and monitoring processes significantly contribute to the development of critical-thinking skills. In turn, this type of thinking encourages metacognitive practices, by prompting individuals to assess the quality of their thinking, consider alternative viewpoints, and refine their cognitive strategies.[footnote]Okta Alpindo et al., \u201cCan Critical-Thinking Skills Be Measured by Analyzing Metacognition?,\u201d <em>Journal of Teaching and Learning<\/em> 18, no. 2 (2024): 195.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nBy layering metacognitive skills on top of traditional information literacy instruction, users are taught self-regulatory search skills, gaining the ability to test and evaluate their thinking by asking questions, adopting new perspectives, and becoming attentive to cognitive pitfalls.[footnote]Tim Gorichanaz, \u201cVirtuous Search: A Framework for Intellectual Virtue in Online Search,\u201d <em>Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology<\/em> 75, no. 5 (2024): 543.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nMetacognitive skills can also help learners become attuned to the \u201caffective dimension of information consumption and interpretation.\u201d Library employees can prompt learners to monitor the way particular information triggers emotions such as anger and fear. In taking time to reflect on their emotional response to information, users can be taught to develop \u201cmore thoughtful, less reactionary responses.\u201d[footnote]Hannah et al., \u201cA Mindfulness-Based Information Literacy Framework for the Current Information Environment,\u201d 39, 43.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nThese skills help develop cognitive flexibility, making a person more likely to be open-minded and intellectually humble, and therefore more willing to acknowledge where they might be wrong, and less likely to overestimate their own knowledge.[footnote]Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 4.[\/footnote] Metacognitive skills have been shown to increase people\u2019s ability to detect misinformation, as well as decrease their enjoyment of partisan content.[footnote]Hannah et al., \u201cA Mindfulness-Based Information Literacy Framework for the Current Information Environment,\u201d 44.[\/footnote]\r\n<h2><a id=\"teaching\"><\/a>5.6 Teaching Metacognition with Socratic Questioning<\/h2>\r\n\u201cThe importance of metacognition in the process of learning is an old idea that can be traced from Socrates\u2019 questioning methods to Dewey\u2019s twentieth-century stance that we learn more from reflecting on our experiences than from the actual experiences themselves.\u201d[footnote]Tanner, \u201cPromoting Student Metacognition,\u201d 113.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nUsing Socratic questioning in a reference interaction is a way to encourage learners to challenge or disrupt their own thinking process, to contemplate alternatives to their process, and to \u201cjudge the worth of their positions and assess the value of new positions.\u201d[footnote]Shannon Marie Robinson, \u201cSocratic Questioning: A Teaching Philosophy for the Student Research Consultation,\u201d <em>In the Library with the Lead Pipe <\/em>(blog), November 1, 2017.[\/footnote] It encourages metacognition, pushing learners to analyze what sources they\u2019ve found and the how and why of their own information seeking behaviours. Beene and Greer believe that integrating Socratic principles into every library interaction helps build the cognitive flexibility necessary to contend with disinformation.[footnote]Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 4.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nThe ideal Socratic question is one that does not imply a correct answer. Instead, it asks the learner to observe the complexity of their own information needs: to explore the origins of their thinking, to articulate problems with their approach, to explore the implications of their conclusions, and to consider different solutions.[footnote]Stephanie Beene and Katie Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020.[\/footnote] Socratic questioning is a format that builds trust with learners by placing the librarian in the role of non-expert and research collaborator looking to \u201cempower, encourage, empathize, and engage.\u201d[footnote]Robinson, \u201cSocratic Questioning.\u201d[\/footnote]\r\n<h2><a id=\"socratic-questions\"><\/a>5.7 Socratic Questions for Reference Interviews<\/h2>\r\nRather than arguing with or correcting users who may be engaging with disinformation, library workers should repeat key phrases back to users to check their understanding, and then use Socratic questions to gradually nudge them in new directions.\r\n\r\n<strong>Working with Learners on Assignments<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>Adopted from Tanner[footnote]Tanner, \u201cPromoting Student Metacognition.\u201d[\/footnote]: <\/em>\r\n\r\nHow did you approach your research for this assignment? How did your approach differ from other assignments?\r\n\r\nWhat questions have come up during your work on this assignment that you had not considered before?\r\n\r\n<strong>Helping Learners Evaluate Sources<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>Adopted from Tanner[footnote]Tanner, \u201cPromoting Student Metacognition.\u201d[\/footnote]: <\/em>\r\n\r\nHow did you arrive at this source of information?\r\n\r\nWhat was your main reason for selecting this source and what were the main reasons you did not select other sources you found?\r\n\r\nHow confident are you in your selection? Why? What else would you need to know to increase your confidence?\r\n\r\n<em>Adopted from Beene and Greer[footnote]Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020.[\/footnote]:<\/em>\r\n\r\nHow did you determine the credibility (competence, expertise, and trustworthiness) of this source?\r\n\r\nHow do you know this information is accurate? How could you verify it?\r\n\r\nWhat information is this based on? Could it be distorted by experiences, biases, perspectives?\r\n\r\n<em>Adapted from Hannah[footnote]Hannah et al., \u201cA Mindfulness-Based Information Literacy Framework for the Current Information Environment.\u201d[\/footnote]<\/em>\r\n\r\nCan you confirm this information across multiple sources?\r\n\r\nDoes the source you\u2019ve found come from a source with an identifiable code of ethics?\r\n\r\nCan you identify the political motivations behind this source of information?\r\n\r\nCan you identify what sources may gain (or lose) by disseminating the information?\r\n\r\nCan you identify a purpose or goal for sharing this information?\r\n\r\n<strong>Helping Learners Question Perspectives<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>Adopted from Beene and Greer[footnote]Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020.[\/footnote]:<\/em>\r\n\r\nWhat point of view is being represented here?\r\n\r\nAre there points of view that are missing\/excluded?\r\n\r\nWhat other points of view should be considered before drawing conclusions?\r\n\r\nWhat assumptions underlie this point of view?\r\n\r\nWhat alternative assumptions might you make?\r\n\r\n<strong>Helping Learners Question Conclusions<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>Adopted from Beene and Greer[footnote]Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020.[\/footnote]:<\/em>\r\n\r\nWhat is the evidence for and against your conclusion?\r\n\r\nWhat conclusions have others drawn that are different, and how might they influence your own?\r\n\r\nAre you looking at all the evidence, or just what supports your own opinion?\r\n\r\nAre you basing your acceptance of this on fact or feeling? What evidence supports this?\r\n\r\nCould you be misinterpreting the evidence? Are you making any assumptions?\r\n\r\nCould you be ignoring, amplifying, distorting, or downplaying certain information to construct a narrative?\r\n\r\n<strong>Helping Learners Think Through Consequences<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>Adopted from Beene and Greer[footnote]Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020.[\/footnote]:<\/em>\r\n\r\nWhat are the implications of acting on or believing this?\r\n\r\nIf you do this or believe this, what are the consequences?\r\n\r\nHow do the consequences impact your understanding of the topic?\r\n\r\n<strong>Helping Learners Engage with the Emotional Component of Information<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<em>Adapted into questions from Hannah[footnote]Hannah et al., \u201cA Mindfulness-Based Information Literacy Framework for the Current Information Environment.\u201d[\/footnote] <\/em>\r\n\r\nCan you identify the emotional response you are having to this information? What makes you feel this way?\r\n\r\nAre your beliefs altering the way I am interpreting things?\r\n\r\nWhat do you care about? Does this matter for your day-to-day life?\r\n\r\nWhat does this information ask you to do or believe?\r\n\r\n<em>Adopted from Beene and Greer[footnote]Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020.[\/footnote]:<\/em>\r\n\r\nWhat would happen if you thought of this another way (or the facts pointed to something else)? How would that feel?\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><a id=\"reflective-questions\"><\/a>Reflective Questions<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<div>\r\n\r\nAre there trust-building techniques listed here that you intend to integrate into your practice going forward?\r\n\r\nWhat gaps have you identified in the metacognitive skills of library users?\r\n\r\nWhich category of Socratic questions do you think will be most appropriate for your users and why?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<p><strong>Chapter Contents<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#approaches-to-reference\">5.1 Empathy-based Approaches to Reference Work<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#building-trust\">5.2 Building Trust with Users<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#collaboration\">5.3 Building Trust Through Collaboration<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#empathetic-listening\">5.4 Building Trust Through Empathetic Listening<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#critical-thinking\">5.5 Strengthening Critical Thinking Through Metacognition<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#teaching\">5.6 Teaching Metacognition with Socratic Questioning<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#socratic-questions\">5.7 Socratic Questions for Reference Interviews<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"#reflective-questions\">Reflective Questions<\/a><\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h2><a id=\"approaches-to-reference\"><\/a>5.1 Empathy-based Approaches to Reference Work<\/h2>\n<p>The reference desk or research help appointment are common sites of interaction between the library and learners who may represent a continuum of knowledge or beliefs, from curious learners investigating a claim to full-fledged conspiracists seeking evidence for their theories.<\/p>\n<p>As we discussed further in Chapter 1, disinformation and conspiracy theories are appealing in ways that go far beyond logic or reason: they play on much deeper emotions, such as anxiety, resentment, alienation, uncertainty, anger, and fear.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stephanie Beene and Katie Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians: Countering Conspiracy Theories in the Age of QAnon,\u201d The Journal of Academic Librarianship 47, no. 1 (2021): 5.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-1\" href=\"#footnote-107-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> They use rhetorical devices that are intentionally designed to trigger these negative emotions, knowing that outrage drives engagement (i.e. rage-baiting).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Matthew N. Hannah et al., \u201cA Mindfulness-Based Information Literacy Framework for the Current Information Environment,\u201d Journal of Information Literacy 18, no. 2 (2024): 39, 43.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-2\" href=\"#footnote-107-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a> Belief in a particular area of disinformation or conspiracy (for example, the belief that vaccines cause autism) can also provide its adherents with a sense of belonging or connection. To turn away from that belief would thus mean a loss of community they may not have elsewhere.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stephanie Beene and Katie Greer, \u201cLibrary Workers on the Front Lines\u00a0of Conspiracy Theories in\u00a0the\u00a0US: One Nationwide Survey,\u201d Reference Services Review 51, nos. 3\u20134 (2023): 262.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-3\" href=\"#footnote-107-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>By triggering feelings of powerlessness, alienation and us-versus-them, disinformation and conspiracy theories lead their adherents to lose \u201ctrust in established institutions, including universities and libraries,\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 6.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-4\" href=\"#footnote-107-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a> placing the librarian at a disadvantage at the start of a reference interaction.<\/p>\n<p>In this section, we introduce several methods of approaching a reference interaction that compliment traditional IL approaches, and can be effective with any learners, including learners invested in disinformation.<\/p>\n<p>The first method puts building trust with learners at the centre of the reference interaction. To build trust with learners, a library worker should aim to create a collaborative environment centred on empathetic listening. This kind of environment helps learners grow more comfortable interacting with library workers, and can form the foundation of an ongoing relationship between the learner and the library.<\/p>\n<p>The second method aims to instill metacognitive skills in learners through asking questions. Metacognition builds on critical thinking skills, providing learners with the ability to more accurately assess their own knowledge, to be more open-minded, and to shift their views. In asking questions, rather than telling learners what to think, the library worker demonstrates their respect for the learners, positioning themselves as a collaborator in a research journey, and models a technique that learners can use themselves to think through complex questions.<\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"building-trust\"><\/a>5.2 Building Trust with Users<\/h2>\n<p>The core weight of the research appointment depends on the librarian\u2019s performance, namely, whether or not they employ interpersonal skills, practice empathy, and build trust.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Meika E. Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment: Combating Research Anxiety and Library Stereotypes,\u201d The Reference Librarian 61, nos. 3\u20134 (2020): 186.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-5\" href=\"#footnote-107-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Learners, even those comfortable enough to approach a reference desk or make an appointment with a library worker, can still experience feelings of library anxiety or inferiority in the presence of an expert. In taking on the role of an expert, even inadvertently, a library employee may convey an arrogant attitude that results in intimidation or antipathy.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Mark Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert: A Postmodern Approach to Expertise,\u201d The Reference Librarian 42, nos. 87\u201388 (2004): 288.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-6\" href=\"#footnote-107-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a> This imbalance in status between the expert and non-expert can prevent a user from being able to absorb anything discussed in the reference interaction.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 187.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-7\" href=\"#footnote-107-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>In their conversations with library workers, Beene and Greer found that library learners were only receptive to fact-checking, counter-argument, or the introduction of information literacy instruction into reference encounters if the learner was either more curious than ideologically invested in a particular idea, or because the library worker had previously established a relationship based in trust with that learner.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Beene and Greer, \u201cLibrary Workers on the Front Lines\u00a0of Conspiracy Theories in\u00a0the\u00a0US,\u201d 265.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-8\" href=\"#footnote-107-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>It is therefore crucial for a library worker to be aware of this imbalance, and to be able to bring human-centred and emotionally intelligent qualities such as empathy, responsiveness, interest, friendliness, approachability, enthusiasm, sensitivity, patience, dependability, humour, flexibility, creativity, and a lack of judgment into their work with learners.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 285\u201389, 292.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-9\" href=\"#footnote-107-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>By employing techniques aimed at correcting this imbalance\u2013considering the learner\u2019s perspective and needs, employing active and empathetic listening methods, asking open questions, and creating a positive environment through good humour and interest\u2013a library worker conveys a \u201cnon-expert posture\u201d of acceptance and mutual respect.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 288.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-10\" href=\"#footnote-107-10\" aria-label=\"Footnote 10\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[10]<\/sup><\/a> In doing so, they can build the trust necessary to offer corrections to disinformation. This trust can be strengthened even further by developing ongoing relationships with learners, encouraging them to return with further questions or research needs.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 186\u201388; Beene and Greer, \u201cLibrary Workers on the Front Lines\u00a0of Conspiracy Theories in\u00a0the\u00a0US,\u201d 265.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-11\" href=\"#footnote-107-11\" aria-label=\"Footnote 11\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[11]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"collaboration\"><\/a>5.3 Building Trust Through Collaboration<\/h2>\n<p>By cultivating a \u201crelational, interdependent, and non-hierarchical manner\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 289.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-12\" href=\"#footnote-107-12\" aria-label=\"Footnote 12\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[12]<\/sup><\/a> in their reference interactions and aiming for an approach grounded in collaboration and dialogue,<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 292, 273.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-13\" href=\"#footnote-107-13\" aria-label=\"Footnote 13\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[13]<\/sup><\/a> a library worker counters the feeling of imbalance between the librarian and the learner, discussed above, and replaces it with conversation, co-construction, and shared inquiry.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 279, 286.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-14\" href=\"#footnote-107-14\" aria-label=\"Footnote 14\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[14]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>To ensure a collaborative reference interaction, the librarian can take the following steps:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Convey to learners that, despite their role in the library, the librarian is not an \u201call-knowing expert\u201d and that the learner brings their own knowledge and familiarity with the topic.<\/strong> By asking the user for brief subject overviews and suggestions for search terms in the course of the conversation, the interaction becomes more of a partnership, with the librarian as the provider of research expertise and the learner as the provider of subject insight.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 192.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-15\" href=\"#footnote-107-15\" aria-label=\"Footnote 15\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[15]<\/sup><\/a> The librarian should be careful to not convey a judgmental attitude towards a user\u2019s information-seeking behavior, or to provide the \u201canswer\u201d to their question, instead conveying to the user that they are capable of \u201crecognizing [their] own need and of knowing when useful information has been found to serve it.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 287, 290.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-16\" href=\"#footnote-107-16\" aria-label=\"Footnote 16\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[16]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Avoid excessive jargon, using familiar terms when possible, providing synonyms, brief descriptions, or relatable comparisons when technical terminology is necessary, and offering explanations for how certain conclusions were reached.<\/strong> Matook provides the example of a librarian showing a learner that a source is relevant. In saying this, a definition of relevance could be provided (\u201cthis source matches our research topics and keywords\u201d) and an explanation added (pointing out clues that identify the source as relevant).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 193.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-17\" href=\"#footnote-107-17\" aria-label=\"Footnote 17\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[17]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Conclude any reference interaction with sincerity and enthusiasm, finding a way to acknowledge what the learner has achieved over the course of the conversation. <\/strong>The librarian should express gratitude to the learner for stopping by or for making the appointment, conveying that they too got something out of the exchange.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 194.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-18\" href=\"#footnote-107-18\" aria-label=\"Footnote 18\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[18]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Extend the relationship beyond the bounds of the reference interaction<\/strong>, offering friendly greetings to learners on campus, or by checking in with learners who have made research appointments in the past during stressful times of the academic year, reminding them of services available from the library.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 194.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-19\" href=\"#footnote-107-19\" aria-label=\"Footnote 19\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[19]<\/sup><\/a> As discussed above, cultivating this type of familiar relationship is often the only way to get to a place where users will accept any form of fact-checking or counter-argument.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><a id=\"empathetic-listening\"><\/a>5.4 Building Trust Through Empathetic Listening<\/h2>\n<p>Body-language, facial expression, tone of voice, choice of language, and empathetic listening skills are all important when faced with a learner bringing disinformation to a reference interaction.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Establish a bond <\/strong>with the learner and reduce any negative preconceptions by engaging in casual conversation at the start of each reference interaction.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 188.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-20\" href=\"#footnote-107-20\" aria-label=\"Footnote 20\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[20]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Insert some \u201ccritical thinking questions<\/strong> into a learner\u2019s line of reasoning to see how open-minded they seem.\u201d If their reaction is defensive or defiant, change the approach.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 6.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-21\" href=\"#footnote-107-21\" aria-label=\"Footnote 21\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[21]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Find something to agree on<\/strong>. If possible, identify a shared vested interest and use that to build connection. For example, find the common ground between yourself and a learner invested in vaccine hesitancy &#8211; perhaps it\u2019s a desire to make the best possible health decisions for a child.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 6.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-22\" href=\"#footnote-107-22\" aria-label=\"Footnote 22\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[22]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Give learners \u201cpermission to be confused.\u201d<\/strong> Let learners know when search processes are difficult or frustrating and that those feelings are valid. Share your own past experiences where you struggled with a similar question as a way to open a space for users to be open about what they don\u2019t understand.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Kimberly D. Tanner, \u201cPromoting Student Metacognition,\u201d CBE Life Sciences Education 11, no. 2 (2012): 117.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-23\" href=\"#footnote-107-23\" aria-label=\"Footnote 23\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[23]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Monitor your body language and verbal and facial cues<\/strong> to avoid taking on a defensive or negative posture which can trigger the same emotion in the user. Language strategies include:\n<ul>\n<li>Starting with a compliment or positive observation<\/li>\n<li>Replacing \u201cyou\u201d statements with \u201cI\u201d statements<\/li>\n<li>Replacing \u201cbut\u201d with \u201cand.\u201d<\/li>\n<li>Avoiding terms like \u201cshould\u201d or \u201cought.\u201d<\/li>\n<li>When necessary finding ways to \u201cdisagree agreeably\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 5.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-24\" href=\"#footnote-107-24\" aria-label=\"Footnote 24\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[24]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Beene and Greer offer the following example of these techniques in action:<\/p>\n<p>Instead of \u201cYou may think that sentient reptiles control the world in a secret shadow government, but there is no evidence of that,\u201d try, \u201cI understand that is a terrifying thought, and you want to get as much information as possible. Let\u2019s try and look critically at what we can find together.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 6.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-25\" href=\"#footnote-107-25\" aria-label=\"Footnote 25\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[25]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"critical-thinking\"><\/a>5.5 Strengthening Critical Thinking Through Metacognition<\/h2>\n<p>As stated above, traditional information literacy instruction is often ineffective with learners whose thoughts have been impacted by disinformation or conspiracy. In teaching someone to critically evaluate sources, for example, a learner can jump from the healthy skepticism encouraged by library professionals to a suspicion that all sources are not trustworthy. While the traditional approach to teaching information literacy has focused specifically on building critical thinking skills, the fight against disinformation requires an additional layer of skill building &#8211; that of metacognition.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 4.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-26\" href=\"#footnote-107-26\" aria-label=\"Footnote 26\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[26]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>There is a close relationship between critical thinking and metacognition, with each skill complementing and reinforcing the other:<\/p>\n<p>Metacognition involves understanding one&#8217;s own thinking processes\u2014being aware of how one thinks and learns. Critical thinking, on the other hand, involves analyzing, evaluating, and reasoning about information. Metacognition enables individuals to reflect on their thinking, recognize biases, and monitor their understanding of a subject. These self-awareness and monitoring processes significantly contribute to the development of critical-thinking skills. In turn, this type of thinking encourages metacognitive practices, by prompting individuals to assess the quality of their thinking, consider alternative viewpoints, and refine their cognitive strategies.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Okta Alpindo et al., \u201cCan Critical-Thinking Skills Be Measured by Analyzing Metacognition?,\u201d Journal of Teaching and Learning 18, no. 2 (2024): 195.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-27\" href=\"#footnote-107-27\" aria-label=\"Footnote 27\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[27]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>By layering metacognitive skills on top of traditional information literacy instruction, users are taught self-regulatory search skills, gaining the ability to test and evaluate their thinking by asking questions, adopting new perspectives, and becoming attentive to cognitive pitfalls.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Tim Gorichanaz, \u201cVirtuous Search: A Framework for Intellectual Virtue in Online Search,\u201d Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology 75, no. 5 (2024): 543.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-28\" href=\"#footnote-107-28\" aria-label=\"Footnote 28\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[28]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Metacognitive skills can also help learners become attuned to the \u201caffective dimension of information consumption and interpretation.\u201d Library employees can prompt learners to monitor the way particular information triggers emotions such as anger and fear. In taking time to reflect on their emotional response to information, users can be taught to develop \u201cmore thoughtful, less reactionary responses.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Hannah et al., \u201cA Mindfulness-Based Information Literacy Framework for the Current Information Environment,\u201d 39, 43.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-29\" href=\"#footnote-107-29\" aria-label=\"Footnote 29\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[29]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>These skills help develop cognitive flexibility, making a person more likely to be open-minded and intellectually humble, and therefore more willing to acknowledge where they might be wrong, and less likely to overestimate their own knowledge.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 4.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-30\" href=\"#footnote-107-30\" aria-label=\"Footnote 30\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[30]<\/sup><\/a> Metacognitive skills have been shown to increase people\u2019s ability to detect misinformation, as well as decrease their enjoyment of partisan content.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Hannah et al., \u201cA Mindfulness-Based Information Literacy Framework for the Current Information Environment,\u201d 44.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-31\" href=\"#footnote-107-31\" aria-label=\"Footnote 31\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[31]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"teaching\"><\/a>5.6 Teaching Metacognition with Socratic Questioning<\/h2>\n<p>\u201cThe importance of metacognition in the process of learning is an old idea that can be traced from Socrates\u2019 questioning methods to Dewey\u2019s twentieth-century stance that we learn more from reflecting on our experiences than from the actual experiences themselves.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Tanner, \u201cPromoting Student Metacognition,\u201d 113.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-32\" href=\"#footnote-107-32\" aria-label=\"Footnote 32\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[32]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Using Socratic questioning in a reference interaction is a way to encourage learners to challenge or disrupt their own thinking process, to contemplate alternatives to their process, and to \u201cjudge the worth of their positions and assess the value of new positions.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Shannon Marie Robinson, \u201cSocratic Questioning: A Teaching Philosophy for the Student Research Consultation,\u201d In the Library with the Lead Pipe (blog), November 1, 2017.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-33\" href=\"#footnote-107-33\" aria-label=\"Footnote 33\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[33]<\/sup><\/a> It encourages metacognition, pushing learners to analyze what sources they\u2019ve found and the how and why of their own information seeking behaviours. Beene and Greer believe that integrating Socratic principles into every library interaction helps build the cognitive flexibility necessary to contend with disinformation.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 4.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-34\" href=\"#footnote-107-34\" aria-label=\"Footnote 34\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[34]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>The ideal Socratic question is one that does not imply a correct answer. Instead, it asks the learner to observe the complexity of their own information needs: to explore the origins of their thinking, to articulate problems with their approach, to explore the implications of their conclusions, and to consider different solutions.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stephanie Beene and Katie Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-35\" href=\"#footnote-107-35\" aria-label=\"Footnote 35\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[35]<\/sup><\/a> Socratic questioning is a format that builds trust with learners by placing the librarian in the role of non-expert and research collaborator looking to \u201cempower, encourage, empathize, and engage.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Robinson, \u201cSocratic Questioning.\u201d\" id=\"return-footnote-107-36\" href=\"#footnote-107-36\" aria-label=\"Footnote 36\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[36]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h2><a id=\"socratic-questions\"><\/a>5.7 Socratic Questions for Reference Interviews<\/h2>\n<p>Rather than arguing with or correcting users who may be engaging with disinformation, library workers should repeat key phrases back to users to check their understanding, and then use Socratic questions to gradually nudge them in new directions.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Working with Learners on Assignments<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>Adopted from Tanner<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Tanner, \u201cPromoting Student Metacognition.\u201d\" id=\"return-footnote-107-37\" href=\"#footnote-107-37\" aria-label=\"Footnote 37\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[37]<\/sup><\/a>: <\/em><\/p>\n<p>How did you approach your research for this assignment? How did your approach differ from other assignments?<\/p>\n<p>What questions have come up during your work on this assignment that you had not considered before?<\/p>\n<p><strong>Helping Learners Evaluate Sources<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>Adopted from Tanner<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Tanner, \u201cPromoting Student Metacognition.\u201d\" id=\"return-footnote-107-38\" href=\"#footnote-107-38\" aria-label=\"Footnote 38\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[38]<\/sup><\/a>: <\/em><\/p>\n<p>How did you arrive at this source of information?<\/p>\n<p>What was your main reason for selecting this source and what were the main reasons you did not select other sources you found?<\/p>\n<p>How confident are you in your selection? Why? What else would you need to know to increase your confidence?<\/p>\n<p><em>Adopted from Beene and Greer<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-39\" href=\"#footnote-107-39\" aria-label=\"Footnote 39\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[39]<\/sup><\/a>:<\/em><\/p>\n<p>How did you determine the credibility (competence, expertise, and trustworthiness) of this source?<\/p>\n<p>How do you know this information is accurate? How could you verify it?<\/p>\n<p>What information is this based on? Could it be distorted by experiences, biases, perspectives?<\/p>\n<p><em>Adapted from Hannah<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Hannah et al., \u201cA Mindfulness-Based Information Literacy Framework for the Current Information Environment.\u201d\" id=\"return-footnote-107-40\" href=\"#footnote-107-40\" aria-label=\"Footnote 40\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[40]<\/sup><\/a><\/em><\/p>\n<p>Can you confirm this information across multiple sources?<\/p>\n<p>Does the source you\u2019ve found come from a source with an identifiable code of ethics?<\/p>\n<p>Can you identify the political motivations behind this source of information?<\/p>\n<p>Can you identify what sources may gain (or lose) by disseminating the information?<\/p>\n<p>Can you identify a purpose or goal for sharing this information?<\/p>\n<p><strong>Helping Learners Question Perspectives<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>Adopted from Beene and Greer<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-41\" href=\"#footnote-107-41\" aria-label=\"Footnote 41\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[41]<\/sup><\/a>:<\/em><\/p>\n<p>What point of view is being represented here?<\/p>\n<p>Are there points of view that are missing\/excluded?<\/p>\n<p>What other points of view should be considered before drawing conclusions?<\/p>\n<p>What assumptions underlie this point of view?<\/p>\n<p>What alternative assumptions might you make?<\/p>\n<p><strong>Helping Learners Question Conclusions<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>Adopted from Beene and Greer<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-42\" href=\"#footnote-107-42\" aria-label=\"Footnote 42\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[42]<\/sup><\/a>:<\/em><\/p>\n<p>What is the evidence for and against your conclusion?<\/p>\n<p>What conclusions have others drawn that are different, and how might they influence your own?<\/p>\n<p>Are you looking at all the evidence, or just what supports your own opinion?<\/p>\n<p>Are you basing your acceptance of this on fact or feeling? What evidence supports this?<\/p>\n<p>Could you be misinterpreting the evidence? Are you making any assumptions?<\/p>\n<p>Could you be ignoring, amplifying, distorting, or downplaying certain information to construct a narrative?<\/p>\n<p><strong>Helping Learners Think Through Consequences<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>Adopted from Beene and Greer<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-43\" href=\"#footnote-107-43\" aria-label=\"Footnote 43\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[43]<\/sup><\/a>:<\/em><\/p>\n<p>What are the implications of acting on or believing this?<\/p>\n<p>If you do this or believe this, what are the consequences?<\/p>\n<p>How do the consequences impact your understanding of the topic?<\/p>\n<p><strong>Helping Learners Engage with the Emotional Component of Information<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>Adapted into questions from Hannah<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Hannah et al., \u201cA Mindfulness-Based Information Literacy Framework for the Current Information Environment.\u201d\" id=\"return-footnote-107-44\" href=\"#footnote-107-44\" aria-label=\"Footnote 44\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[44]<\/sup><\/a> <\/em><\/p>\n<p>Can you identify the emotional response you are having to this information? What makes you feel this way?<\/p>\n<p>Are your beliefs altering the way I am interpreting things?<\/p>\n<p>What do you care about? Does this matter for your day-to-day life?<\/p>\n<p>What does this information ask you to do or believe?<\/p>\n<p><em>Adopted from Beene and Greer<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020.\" id=\"return-footnote-107-45\" href=\"#footnote-107-45\" aria-label=\"Footnote 45\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[45]<\/sup><\/a>:<\/em><\/p>\n<p>What would happen if you thought of this another way (or the facts pointed to something else)? How would that feel?<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><a id=\"reflective-questions\"><\/a>Reflective Questions<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<div>\n<p>Are there trust-building techniques listed here that you intend to integrate into your practice going forward?<\/p>\n<p>What gaps have you identified in the metacognitive skills of library users?<\/p>\n<p>Which category of Socratic questions do you think will be most appropriate for your users and why?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-107-1\">Stephanie Beene and Katie Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians: Countering Conspiracy Theories in the Age of QAnon,\u201d <em>The Journal of Academic Librarianship<\/em> 47, no. 1 (2021): 5. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-2\">Matthew N. Hannah et al., \u201cA Mindfulness-Based Information Literacy Framework for the Current Information Environment,\u201d <em>Journal of Information Literacy<\/em> 18, no. 2 (2024): 39, 43. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-3\">Stephanie Beene and Katie Greer, \u201cLibrary Workers on the Front Lines\u00a0of Conspiracy Theories in\u00a0the\u00a0US: One Nationwide Survey,\u201d <em>Reference Services Review<\/em> 51, nos. 3\u20134 (2023): 262. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-4\">Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 6. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-5\">Meika E. Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment: Combating Research Anxiety and Library Stereotypes,\u201d <em>The Reference Librarian<\/em> 61, nos. 3\u20134 (2020): 186. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-6\">Mark Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert: A Postmodern Approach to Expertise,\u201d <em>The Reference Librarian<\/em> 42, nos. 87\u201388 (2004): 288. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-7\">Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 187. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-8\">Beene and Greer, \u201cLibrary Workers on the Front Lines\u00a0of Conspiracy Theories in\u00a0the\u00a0US,\u201d 265. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-9\">Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 285\u201389, 292. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-10\">Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 288. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-10\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 10\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-11\">Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 186\u201388; Beene and Greer, \u201cLibrary Workers on the Front Lines\u00a0of Conspiracy Theories in\u00a0the\u00a0US,\u201d 265. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-11\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 11\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-12\">Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 289. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-12\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 12\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-13\">Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 292, 273. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-13\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 13\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-14\">Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 279, 286. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-14\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 14\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-15\">Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 192. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-15\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 15\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-16\">Stover, \u201cThe Reference Librarian as Non-Expert,\u201d 287, 290. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-16\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 16\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-17\">Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 193. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-17\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 17\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-18\">Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 194. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-18\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 18\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-19\">Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 194. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-19\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 19\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-20\">Matook, \u201cThe Impactful Research Appointment,\u201d 188. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-20\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 20\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-21\">Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 6. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-21\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 21\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-22\">Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 6. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-22\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 22\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-23\">Kimberly D. Tanner, \u201cPromoting Student Metacognition,\u201d <em>CBE Life Sciences Education<\/em> 11, no. 2 (2012): 117. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-23\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 23\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-24\">Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 5. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-24\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 24\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-25\">Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 6. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-25\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 25\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-26\">Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 4. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-26\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 26\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-27\">Okta Alpindo et al., \u201cCan Critical-Thinking Skills Be Measured by Analyzing Metacognition?,\u201d <em>Journal of Teaching and Learning<\/em> 18, no. 2 (2024): 195. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-27\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 27\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-28\">Tim Gorichanaz, \u201cVirtuous Search: A Framework for Intellectual Virtue in Online Search,\u201d <em>Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology<\/em> 75, no. 5 (2024): 543. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-28\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 28\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-29\">Hannah et al., \u201cA Mindfulness-Based Information Literacy Framework for the Current Information Environment,\u201d 39, 43. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-29\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 29\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-30\">Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 4. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-30\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 30\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-31\">Hannah et al., \u201cA Mindfulness-Based Information Literacy Framework for the Current Information Environment,\u201d 44. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-31\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 31\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-32\">Tanner, \u201cPromoting Student Metacognition,\u201d 113. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-32\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 32\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-33\">Shannon Marie Robinson, \u201cSocratic Questioning: A Teaching Philosophy for the Student Research Consultation,\u201d <em>In the Library with the Lead Pipe <\/em>(blog), November 1, 2017. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-33\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 33\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-34\">Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d 2021, 4. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-34\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 34\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-35\">Stephanie Beene and Katie Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-35\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 35\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-36\">Robinson, \u201cSocratic Questioning.\u201d <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-36\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 36\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-37\">Tanner, \u201cPromoting Student Metacognition.\u201d <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-37\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 37\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-38\">Tanner, \u201cPromoting Student Metacognition.\u201d <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-38\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 38\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-39\">Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-39\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 39\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-40\">Hannah et al., \u201cA Mindfulness-Based Information Literacy Framework for the Current Information Environment.\u201d <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-40\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 40\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-41\">Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-41\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 41\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-42\">Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-42\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 42\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-43\">Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-43\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 43\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-44\">Hannah et al., \u201cA Mindfulness-Based Information Literacy Framework for the Current Information Environment.\u201d <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-44\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 44\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-107-45\">Beene and Greer, \u201cA Call to Action for Librarians,\u201d December 3, 2020. <a href=\"#return-footnote-107-45\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 45\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":605,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-107","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/disinformationhandbook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/107","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/disinformationhandbook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/disinformationhandbook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/disinformationhandbook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/605"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/disinformationhandbook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/107\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":150,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/disinformationhandbook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/107\/revisions\/150"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/disinformationhandbook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/disinformationhandbook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/107\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/disinformationhandbook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=107"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/disinformationhandbook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=107"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/disinformationhandbook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=107"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca\/disinformationhandbook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=107"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}